学术英语人文Unit-7

学术英语人文,AcademicEnglishforHumanities,Lead-inTextATextBTextCAcademicLanguageandDiscourseListeningSpeakingWriting,UnitContents,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,Lead-inLead-inactivities,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,Canhistorybeobjective?,Lead-in,Activities,Workinpairstodiscussthefollowingquestion:1.Whatmakestruefacts?2.Canobjectivefactsexistinhistory?3.Whatkindoffactorsmayaffectahistoriansobjectivity?,Lead-in,Historicalfacts,Supplementaryinformation,Eventhoughphilosophersdoubtwhetherhistorianscanrepresentthepastinatruthfulandobjectivewayonthegroundthathistoriansfrequentlyfailtoreachaconsensusonwhathappened,thereisnodenyingthatsolidhistoricalfactsdoexist.Forexample,wecansayforsurethatthePeoplesRepublicofChinawasestablishedin1949,whichisahardfactaswehavesufficientevidencestoproveit.Historicalfactsaredifferentfromscientificfactsinthesensethattheformercannotbetestedinanexperiment.Butoncewehaveobtainedreliableprimarysourcesaboutahistoricaleventorfact,wecandescribeitasatruehistoricalfact.Inotherwords,ahistoricalfactissomethingthatcanbeverifiedfromthesources.Historicalfactshaveanexistenceindependentofthehistorian,whomayhoweveruncoverthem.,Lead-in,Factorsaffectingtheobjectivityofhistoricalresearches,Supplementaryinformation,Interpretationsofthesamehistoricaleventbydifferenthistoriansmayvarytosomeextent.Thisshouldcomeasnosurpriseasweallknowhistorianshavetorelyupontheirownjudgmentininterpretingthehistoricalevent.Thereareseveralfactorsthatmayaffectahistoriansobjectivity.First,itisthesources.Thehistorianmightintendtobeobjective,butthesourcematerialissometimesquitepartial,ashistoriesareusuallywrittenbythesocialwinnersinapartialmanner.(Tobecontinued),Lead-in,Supplementaryinformation,Second,historiansmaycomefromdifferentculturalbackgrounds.Ifahistorianinterpretsaneventwiththeinvolvementofhisowncountry,hewillverylikelybeatleastsomewhatbiased.Notallhistoriansarenationalistic;however,itisverydifficulttobeobjectiveindiscussingaworldconflictwhenmostofyoursourcesonitcomefromyourowncountry.Third,theepistemicvaluesandreligiousbeliefsarealsoswingfactors.EvenLeopoldvonRanke,thefounderofhistoryasanacademicdiscipline,wasundertheinfluenceofhisreligiousbeliefashemaintainedthateverystatewasgivenamoralcharacterfromGod.Thehistorianmaynotbeawareofpersonalbiaswhichcouldwellberootedinhismythicassumptions.,Factorsaffectingtheobjectivityofhistoricalresearches(cont.),ClassroomactivitiesSupplementaryinformationSuggestedanswerkey,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,TextATheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TextA,Classroomactivities,SummarizeTextAbaseonyouranswerstoTask1/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,Suggestedanswer:,(Tobecontinued),TextA,Classroomactivities,Suggestedanswer(cont.):,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,SummarizeTextAbaseonyouranswerstoTask1/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,WorkinpairstocompareyouranswerstothequestionsinTask2/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,SuggestedanswerforQ1:Thesentencemeanstheworksproducedbyhistoriansareallguidedbyatheoryofknowledge,andhistoriansshouldtakeadeeperlookathowconvincingthetheoryofknowledgeis,insteadofhavingthisinquirydonebyscholarsfromotherdisciplinessuchasphilosophy.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,SuggestedanswerforQ2:Primarysourcesarecreatedbywitnessesorrecorderswhoexperiencedtheeventsorconditionsbeingdocumented.Oftenthesesourcesarecreatedatthetimewhentheeventsorconditionsareoccurring,butprimarysourcescanalsoincludeautobiographies,memoirs,andoralhistoriesrecordedlater.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,WorkinpairstocompareyouranswerstothequestionsinTask2/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,SuggestedanswerforQ3:Historianstendtojudgethepastwiththeirowncriteria.Theirjudgmentmayappearpartialsometimesasitmaynotfullyreflecttheprevioushistoricalperiodsintheir“ownterms”.Itisstilldebatablewhetherahistoriansmaintaskistoofferhistoricalexplanationorgivehistoricaljudgment.Historianswhosetouttoexplainthepastareusuallycommendedfortheirstrictadherencetocertainnormsofscholarlyobjectivity,buttheyarealsolikelytobecriticizedforwritinghistorieslackingmoralresonanceandrelevancetopresent-daysociety.Butthehistoriesproducedbyjudgmentalhistoriansarealsolikelytobelabeledassubjective.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,WorkinpairstocompareyouranswerstothequestionsinTask2/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,SuggestedanswerforQ4:Historicalobjectivityhasalwaysbeenagoalforhistorianswhentheyareinterpretingahistoricalevent.Byembracinghistoricalobjectivity,ahistorianiscommittedtouncovertherealityofthepast,andtruththatcorrespondstoreality.Yetthisgoalcanbesaidtobea“nobledream”becauseitishardforahistoriantoplayadisinterestedandneutralrolebypurgingthemselvesofexternalloyalties.Therearemanyfactorsthatmayaffecttheobjectivityofhistorians,aswehavediscussedintheLead-insession.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,WorkinpairstocompareyouranswerstothequestionsinTask2/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,SuggestedanswerforQ5:Historycanbeviewedasabranchofscienceashistorianshaveendeavoredtoimprovetheirmethodsofdoinghistorybyadoptingmoreobjectivemethodsintheirstudies.Inaddition,historydealswithfacts,whichareindependentofopinions.Ontheotherhand,unlikeothernaturalsciences,historylackspredicativevalue,whichmaydisqualifyitfrombeingascience.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,WorkinpairstocompareyouranswerstothequestionsinTask2/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextA.P130,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,LeopoldvonRanke(17951886)wasaGermanhistorianandafounderofmodernsource-basedhistory.RankewaseducatedatLeipzigUniversityandtaughtattheUniversityofBerlin.Hechampionedobjectivehistoricalwritingbasedontextualcriticismofsourcematerials,withanaimtoreconstructtheuniqueperiodsofthepastastheyactuallywereandtoavoidinjectingthehistoryofformertimeswiththespiritofthepresent.(Tobecontinued),LeopoldvanRankeandempiricalapproachtohistoricalresearch,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,Toattainhisgoal,Rankeinsistedthatonlycontemporaryaccountsandrelatedmaterialbeusedassources.Hisworkscoveredawidevarietyoftopics,whicharetypicallysubtleaccountsofparticularlimitedperiodsinEuropeanstatesandpoliticalhistory.HisspecialtywasEuropeanhistoryintheperiodofthe16thcenturyand17thcentury.(Tobecontinued),TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,LeopoldvanRankeandempiricalapproachtohistoricalresearch(cont.),TextA,Supplementaryinformation,Rankesapproachtohistoriographyhasbeenlabeledasempiricism,whichremainsoneofthemostinfluentialmethodsofdoinghistory.Empiricismisaboutaccuracywithprimarysourcesandcloseworkthatextractstheevidence.Itaimstoproduceanaccountofthepastasclosetotheevidenceaspossible.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,LeopoldvanRankeandempiricalapproachtohistoricalresearch(cont.),TextA,Supplementaryinformation,Bytradition,the“ScientificRevolution”referstotheperiodbetweenCopernicus(1473-1543)andNewton(1642-1727).Thisisanimportantperiodwitnessinghugechangesinthewaypeoplethoughtaboutthephysicalworldaroundthem.(Tobecontinued),Scientificrevolutionofthe16thand17thcenturies,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,IntheMiddleAges(500-1350AD)thedevelopmentofsciencewasalmoststalledastherewasbasicallylittlescientificinquiryandexperimentation.Studentsofsciencesimplyreadtheworksoftheallegedauthoritiesandacceptedtheirwordastruth.DuringtheRenaissance,however,thequesttounderstandthenaturalworldrevived.Thesamespiritofscientificinquiryledbrilliantscientificobserverstoquestiontraditionalbeliefsabouttheworkingsoftheuniverseinthe16thand17thcentury.(Tobecontinued),Scientificrevolutionofthe16thand17thcenturies(cont.),TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,TextA,Supplementaryinformation,ThemostprominentscientistsofthistimeincludeCopernicus,Galileo,andIsaacNewton.Theyadoptedascientificmethodthatmadeuseofobservationandexperimentationtoexplaintheoriesontheworkingsoftheuniverse.Thisprocessremovedblindadherencetotraditionfromscience,andallowedscientiststologicallyfindanswersthroughtheuseofreason.TheEnlightenmentcameasaresultofthescientificrevolution,whichchangedthewaypeoplelivedaspoliticalandsocialscholarsbegantoquestiontheworkingsofsocietyandgovernment.,TheEmpiricalApproachtoHistoricalResearch,Scientificrevolutionofthe16thand17thcenturies(cont.),ClassroomactivitiesSupplementaryinformationSuggestedanswerkey,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,TextBDilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,TextB,Classroomactivities,SummarizeTextBbaseonyouranswertoTask1/CriticalReadingandThinking/TextB.P138,Suggestedanswer:1.a)epistemic;b)whathappened.2.culturalrelativism;a)worldview;standardsofrationality;practicalinterests;b)conceptualframework;c)theirhistoricaltheories.3.a)ideasorconcepts;b)linguistic;c)thehistoriansinterests.,TextB,Classroomactivities,DiscussthequestionsinTask2/Criticalreadingandthinking/TextB.P138,SuggestedanswerforQ1:Therearemanyreasonsforthedisagreementsamonghistorians.First,theprimarysourcesmightbescarce,allowinghistorianstomakeinferencesfromdifferentperspectives.Second,historiansmayhavedifferentepistemicvalues.Furthermore,historiansarebroughtupindifferentculturalbackgrounds,andbecauseofthis,theirviewpointsarelikelytovary.,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,TextB,Classroomactivities,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,DiscussthequestionsinTask2/Criticalreadingandthinking/TextB.P138,SuggestedanswerforQ2:Yes,wecanstilltrusthistory,ashistoryconsistsofhistoricalfacts.Historicalfactsexistindependentofindividualhistorians.Nomatterhowdifferenttheinterpretationsare,westillknowforsurethatcertaineventshappenedinhistory.,TextB,Classroomactivities,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,DiscussthequestionsinTask2/Criticalreadingandthinking/TextB.P138,SuggestedanswerforQ3:Historianscangetclosertothetruthofthepastbyscrutinizingthesourcesinascrupulousmanner.Theyshouldbearinmindthattheirjudgmentmightbebiasedbecauseofinfluencesfromthenormsorstandardsoftheirowncultures.Withthisawareness,theyaremorelikelytobetolerantofdifferinginterpretations.,TextB,Classroomactivities,Giveafour-minutepresentationonyourfindingsinResearching/TextB.P139,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,Culturalrelativism,TextB,Supplementaryinformation,Culturalrelativismisaconceptthathasbeenwidelyusedinphilosophy,sociology,anthropologyandculturalstudies.Itmaintainsthatthereisnoultimatebenchmarkofgoodorevilbecauseourmoralorethicalsystemsvaryfromculturetoculture.Thesedifferingethicalormoralnormsareallproductsofindividualsocieties,andtheyareallequallyvalid,withnosystembeingreallymorelogicalorbetterthananyother.Therefore,anyopiniononmoralityorethicsissubjecttotheculturalperspectiveofeachperson.Ifwearemoreawareofculturalrelativism,wetendtobelessblindandarrogantinrelationtoothersocietiesandlessrigidinevaluatingtheideasofotherpeople.,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,TextB,Supplementaryinformation,TheHossbachMemorandumisasummaryofGermandictatorAdolfHitlersconferencewithhishigh-rankingmilitaryofficersandforeignaffairministeronNovember5,1937.Therewerenoofficialminutesforthemeeting.ColonelHossbach,whowaspresentatthemeeting,drewupamemorandumforthemeetingfivedaysafterwards.ThememorandumstatesthatHitleroutlinedhisforeignpolicyforthecomingyearsbysayingthatGermanysfutureliedinsolvingtheneedoflivingspacethroughacquisitionofterritory.ThedocumenthasbeenclaimedasthepremeditatedmasterplanofHitlerforEuropeandomination.,HossbachMemorandum,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,TextB,Supplementaryinformation,ThomasKuhn,ThomasSamuelKuhn(19221996)isoneofthemostinfluentialphilosophersofscienceofthetwentiethcentury.Hismasterpiece,TheStructureofScientificRevolutions,waspublishedin1962andstillremainsoneofthemostcitedacademicbooksevennow.Inthisbook,Kuhnproposedthattheprogressofsciencecanbecharacterizedasperiodsofstablegrowthpunctuatedbyrevisionaryrevolutions.Inotherwords,thedevelopmentofscientificfieldsundergoperiodicparadigmshiftsratherthansolelyprogressinginalinearandcontinuousway.,DilemmaswithHistoricalTruth,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,TextCBeingaHistorian,Classroomactivities,BeingaHistorian,TextC,Classroomactivities,Workinsmallgroupstodiscusstheessentialqualitiesofagreathistorian.,Suggestedanswer:1)Greatresearchabilities.Agreathistorianmustbeadeptatreadingandanalyzingtextsandotherprimarysourcesinordertocomeupwithsomethingnewaboutsomethingold.2)Independentorsuspiciousmind.Withasuspiciousmind,historiansareabletoformulateawayoflookingataneventorperiodinanewcontext.3)Cogentwritingskills.Agoodhistorianistoarticulatehisorherargumentsclearlyandpersuasively.Suchargumentshouldhavestructureandberelevantandconcise.Insomecases,agreathistorianisalsoagoodnarratorofevents.4)UnbiasedattitudeAgoodhistorianshouldbeunbiased,andiswillingtochangehisviewsoncecontradictoryevidencesareverified.,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,AcademicLanguageandDiscourseSpecializedvocabularySignpostlanguageFormalEnglishDiscourseanalysisofTextB,SpecializedVocabulary,ChecktheanswerstoTask1/Languagebuilding-up/TextA.P131,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,Suggestedanswers:1historicalinquiry;historicalresearch;historicalstudy;archivalresearch;primary;sources;nationalism;historicalpractice;empiricalhistory;historicalevidence;historicalprofession;historiography21empiricalhistory2nationalism3Historicalevidence;primarysources4Archivalresearch,Findallthehistory-relatedtermsinTextBhistoricaldescriptions;historicalevidence;HossbachMemorandum;sources;historicaltruth;archive;archaeologicalexcavation;historicalresearch;,SignpostLanguage,ChecktheanswerstoTask2/Languagebuilding-up/TextA.P131,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,FormalEnglish,ChecktheanswerstoTask3/Languagebuilding-up/TextA.P132,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,Findallthehistory-relatedtermsinTextB&C.,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,andtogethertheireffectuponmanyphilosophersofhistoryhasbeenoverwhelming.(Line2,Para.3),somehistoricalfacts,suchasdatesofevents,are“truebuttrite”.(Line21,Para.3)Generally,however,skepticismabouthistoricalknowledgepervadeshisbook.(Line21,Para.3)EvenadvancedWesternscientificworldviewschangefromtimetotime,whichchangesintheprevailingparadigm,asThomasKuhnexplained.(Line6,Para.4)ThefirsttwodependlargelyuponSaussurestheory,subsequentlydevelopedbyDerrida.(Line2,Para.7),andtogethertheireffectuponmanyphilosophersofhistoryhasbeenoverwhelming.(Line2,Para.3),somehistoricalfacts,suchasdatesofevents,are“truebuttrite”.(Line21,Para.3)Generally,however,skepticismabouthistoricalknowledgepervadeshisbook.(Line21,Para.3)EvenadvancedWesternscientificworldviewschangefromtimetotime,whichchangesintheprevailingparadigm,asThomasKuhnexplained.(Line6,Para.4)ThefirsttwodependlargelyuponSaussurestheory,subsequentlydevelopedbyDerrida.(Line2,Para.7),FormalEnglish,DiscourseanalysisofTextB,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,Strengtheningyouargumentbyaddressingcounter-arguments,Aneffectivewaytofurtherstrengthenyourargumentistoaddresscounterargumentsorpossibleconcernsaboutyourposition.Insodoing,itshowsthatyouhavethoughteverythingthroughandyouarenotmakingaone-sidedargument.Youcangeneratecounterargumentsbyaskingyourselfhowsomeonewhodisagreeswithyoumightrespondtotheargumentthatyouhaveadvocated.(Tobecontinued),Academiclanguageanddiscourse,Aftercollectingthecounterarguments,itisimportanttotellthereadershowyouwilltacklethem.Usuallyyoushouldpointoutwhythesecounterargumentsarenotstrongenoughtoundermineyourposition,leavingthereadersanimpressionthatyourpositionisstrongerthanopposingarguments.(Tobecontinued),Strengtheningyouargumentbyaddressingcounter-arguments(Cont.),DiscourseanalysisofTextB,Academiclanguageanddiscourse,TheauthorofTextBcomestogripswiththepossiblecounter-argumentstodoubtsaboutabsolutehistoricaltruthbyaddressingsomeoftheconcernsfromhistorians.HeproceedstoconsiderwhatthehistorianswhodisagreewiththechallengestohistoricaltruthmighthavetosayinParas.10-12.Inthesethreeparagraphsheexplainsthathistoriansareunableto“answertheattacksontheircredibility”,andtheirwholeprofessionstill“remainsunderacloud”.Thesecounter-argumentsservetoboosthisargumentthatprobablyabsolutetruthdoesnotexistinhistoricaldescriptions.,Strengtheningyouargumentbyaddressingcounter-arguments(Cont.),DiscourseanalysisofTextB,ListeningClassroomactivitiesSupplementaryinformationSuggestedanswerkey,Unit7TruthandObjecti-vityinHistoricalResearch,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,WordinpairstodiscusspossibleanswerstoTask1/Listening.P144,Listening,Classroomactivities,SuggestedanswerforQ1:KeyFrenchEnlightenmentthinkersareRousseau,Diderot,Montesquieu,andVoltaire.,WordinpairstodiscusspossibleanswerstoTask1/Listening.P144,Listening,Classroomactivities,SuggestedanswerforQ2:TheEnlightenmentthinkersconsciouslysoughthumanadvancementthroughlogic,reasonandcriticism.Theysoughttofindinhumanaffairsnaturallawssimilartothosesciencehaddiscoveredinthephysicaluniverse.,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,WordinpairstodiscusspossibleanswerstoTask1/Listening.P144,Listening,Classroomactivities,SuggestedanswerforQ3:Theirideascametobeacceptedthroughvariouswaysincludingsalons,academies,universities,coffeehouses,etc.,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,ChecktheanswerstoTask2/Listening.P144,Listening,Suggestedanswers:,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,(Tobecontinued),Classroomactivities,ChecktheanswerstoTask2/Listening.P144,Listening,Suggestedanswers:,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,Classroomactivities,ChecktheanswerstoTask3/Listening.P145,Listening,Suggestedanswers:,youngEnlightenmenthotshotscanonofWesterncivilization(3)onthemake(4)thesehostesses(5)trotout,TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,Classroomactivities,SupplementaryInformation,Enlightenmentthinkers,Listening,The18thcenturyhasbeenreferredtoasthe“AgeofEnlightenment”asthelightssuddenlybegantocomeoninmansmindsandhumankindmovedforwardafterthedarknessoftheMiddleAges.BelowareanumberofkeyEnlightenmentthinker.(Tobecontinued),TheCornellsystemofnote-taking,SupplementaryInformation,Enlighten