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现代英语词汇学(第二章)ModernEnglishLexicologyChapter2MorphologicalStructureandWord-Formation2.1Thecomponentpartsofaword:MorphemeAmorphemeisthesmallestmeaningfullinguisticunitoflanguage,notdivisibleoranalyzableintosmallerforms.Itisalsothesmallestunitofgrammaticalanalysis.WhatisusuallyconsideredasinglewordinEnglishmaybecomposedofoneormoremorphemes:,onemorpheme-nationtwomorphemes-nation+althreemorphemes-nation+al+izefourmorphemes-de+nation+al+izemorethanfourmorphemes-de+nation+al+iz+ationAword,therefore,maybeanalyzableintooneormoremorphemes.Amorphemeisalsoatwo-facetlanguageunitwhichpossessesbothsoundandmeaning.Itisthereforedifferentfromaphoneme,whichonlyconveyssounddistinction.Thusk/keiandu/ju:/areonlyphonemes,fortheyhavenomeaning;,a/eiandi/ai/arephonemeswhentheyexistin,forexample,tameandtimerespectively;itisimpossibleintheseinstancestosingleouttheirindividualmeaning.Theybecomemorphemesonlywhenaisusedasanindefinitearticleorasaprefix,andI(capitalized)designatesthefirstpersonsingular.Amorphemeisnotidenticalwithasyllable,either,sincethelatterhasnothingtodowithmeaning.Amorphememayberepresentedbyonesyllable,likeboyandchild,orbytwoormoresyllables,asinlady,crocodile.,Oftenthesyllabicstructureofawordanditsmorphemicstructuredonotcorrespond,asshownintheaboveexampleswhereamorphemeisrepresentedbymorethanonesyllables.Anothergoodexampleistheworddisagreeable,whichconsistsoffivesyllablesasagainstthreemorphemes(dis+agree+able).2.2TypesofmorphemesTherearedifferentwaysofclassifyingmorphemes.Inourtextbook,morphemesaregroupedintocontentmorphemes,grammaticalmorphemesandallomorphs.,1)ContentmorphemesContentmorphemesalsoknownasfreemorphemesarethosethathavecompletemeaningsinthemselvesandcanbeusedasfreegrammaticalunits.Theyarewordsintraditionalsense.Man,walk,kindarecontentmorphemes.2)GrammaticalmorphemesGrammaticalmorphemesmayalsobeboundmorphemesoraffixes;affixesaresegmentsthatareaddedtoaroot.,InEnglish,thisrootisusuallyafreemorpheme,forexample,thewordacceptableisformedbyarootacceptandanadjectivemarkerable.Butinsomecasesthisrootisaboundmorpheme,forexample,intheworddictation,dict-isaboundroot.ItisaLatinrootwhichconveysthemeaningof“sayorspeak”,butitisnotwordinitsownright.Yetwithaffixes,itcanformanumberofwords.Forexample,withtheprefixescontra-(=against)andpre-(=before)weobtaintheverbscontradictmeaning“speakagainst”andpredictmeaning“tellbeforehand”;,withthesuffixion,weformcontradictionandprediction;withthesuffixor,wehavecontradictorandpredictor.Apartfromthese,dictum,dictate,dictation,dictator,diction,dictionaryareallderivedfromtherootdict-.InEnglish,boundmorphemesareeitherLatinorGreek.Althoughtheyarelimitedinnumber,theirproductivepowerisamazing.TheygivebirthtothousandsandthousandsofderivedwordsinmodernEnglish.,Manymorphemeshavesemanticmeaningattachedtothem.Certainlyallfreemorphemesdo.Boundmorphemes,however,maynot.Thepluralmarkersandthepasttensemarkerd/-edbythemselveshavenosemanticmeaning,theycontainonlygrammaticalmeaning.Thesameappliestothesuffixestionandise:-tionmaybeusedtoformanounandisetoformaverb.,3)AllomorphsAmorphememaytakevariousshapesorforms.Forexample,theinflectionalmorpheme_(e)sofbooks,pigs,horseshasthesamemeaning“morethanone”,yetithasthreedifferentphonologicalforms:/-s,-z,-iz/.Theyarecalledallomorphs.“Anallomorphisanyofthevariantformsofamorphemeasconditionedbypositionoradjoiningsounds”(WNWD).Thus,forexample,theallomorphsion/-tion/-sion/-ationarethepositionalvariantsofthesamesuffix.,Theydonotdifferinmeaningorfunctionbutshowaslightdifferenceinsounddependingonthefinalphonemeoftheprecedingverb;forinstance,verbsendingin/t/,usuallytakeion;verbsendingwithconsonantsotherthan/t/,taketion;verbsendinginifyandizetakeation;verbsendingind,-de,ormit,takesion.Allomorphsalsooccuramongprefixes.Theirformthendependsonthefirstletterofthewordtowhichtheywillbeadded.Aprefixlikeim-occursbeforep,b,m;itsallomorphsareir-beforer;il-beforel;in-beforeallotherconsonantsandvowels.Im-,ir-,andil-arethusallomorphsofthemorphemein-.,2.3Methodsofword-formationTheexpansionofvocabularyinmodernEnglishdependschieflyonword-formation.Therearevariouswaysofformingwords,butbyandlarge,thevariousprocessescanbeclassifiedonthebasisoffrequencyofusage,intoaffixation,conversion,compounding(composition),back-formation,abbreviation(shortening),blending,andthefirstthreeprocessesarethemostproductive.AccordingtoPylesandAlgeo(1980),wordsproducedthroughaffixationconstitute30%to40%ofthetotalnumberofnewwords;compoundingyields28%to30%ofallthenewwords;conversiongives26%ofthenewvocabulary.,A.AffixationTheprocessbywhichwordsareformedbyaddingaffixestoarootiscalledaffixation.Thisprocessisalsoknownasderivation,fornewwordscreatedinthiswayarederivedfromoldforms.Thewordsformedinthiswayarecalledderivatives.Englishaffixescanbedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Affixesthatcomebeforetherootarecalledprefixes;thosethatcomeaftertherootarecalledsuffixes.Accordingtothepositionswhichaffixesoccupyinwords,affixationfallsintwosubclasses:prefixationandsuffixation.,Mostprefixes,whenaddedtowords,effectachangeinmeaning,butwithoutconvertingoneword-classtoanother(e.g.natural-unnatural,like-dislike).Someprefixeshavetheeffectofconvertingoneword-classtoanother(force-enforce,earth-unearth).Somesuffixes,whenaddedtowords,cantransformoneword-classintoanother(laugh-laughable,willing-willingness);othersmerelymodifywithoutconverting(cartoon-cartoonist,star-starlet).,1)PrefixationPrefixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingprefixestoroots.Prefixesdonotgenerallychangethewordclassoftherootbutonlymodifyitsmeaning.However,present-dayEnglishfindsaninterestingnumberofclass-changingprefixes,e.g.asleep(a-+v),encourage(en-+n),de-oil(de-+n).Thesemakeuponlyaninsignificantnumberinthehugecontemporaryvocabulary.Weshallclassifyprefixesonasemanticbasisintoninegroups:,a)Negativeprefixes:a-,dis-,in-(il-,ir-,im-),non-,un-,e.g.amoral(non-moral),disloyal(notloyal),injustice(withoutjustice),illegal(notlegal),irresistible(nottoberesisted),immature(notmature),non-smoker(notasmoker),unfair(notfair).Ofthisgroup,un-isbyfarthemostproductiveandcanusuallyreplacein-ordis-withadjectivesforactualuseasinunreplaceable,unmovableforirreplaceableandimmovable.,b)Reversativeprefixes:de-,dis-,un-,e.g.decentralize(transferpowerorauthorityfromthecentralgovernment),disunite(becomeseparate),unwrap(open).Theprefixesofthisgroupcanallbefoundinthepreviousclass.Thereasonsfortheirseparationliesinthemeaning.c)Pejorativeprefixes:mal-,mis-,pseudo-,e.g.maltreat(treatbadly),misconduct(badbehavior),pseudo-science(falsescience).,d)Prefixesofdegreeorsize:arch-,extra-,hyper-macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,ultra-,under-,e.g.archbishop(apriestinchargeofbishopsinalargearea);extra-sensitive(verysensitive),hyperactive(extremelyactive),macrocosm(theuniverse),microcomputer(verysmallcomputer),miniskirt(verysmallandshortskirt),outlive(livelongerthan),overweight(weighingmorethannormal),submarine(underconservative),undeveloped(lessdeveloped).,e)Prefixesoforientationandattitude:anti-,contra-,counter-,pro-,e.g.anti-nuclear,contraflow(theagreementforthetraffictogoonbothdirectionsononesideoftheroad),pro-student(onthesideofthestudent).f)Locativeprefixes:entra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-,e.g.extramarital(outsidemarriage),forearm,inter-personal(concerningrelationsbetweenpeople),intra-party(withintheparty),telecommunication(communicationbytelephone,radio,etc.),trans-world(acrosstheworld).,g)Prefixesoftimeandorder:ex-,fore-,post-,pre-,re-,e.g.ex-wife(formerwife),foreknowledge(knowledgebeforehappening),post-election(afterelection),reconsider(consideragain).h)Numberprefixes:bi-,multi-(poly-),semi-(hemi-),tri-,uni-(mono-),e.g.bicycle,multi-purpose,polysyllable,semi-naked(halfnaked),hemisphere(halfoftheearthoneithersideoftheequator),tricycle(avehiclewiththreewheels),uniform(notdifferent),monorail(onerail).,i)Miscellaneousprefixes:auto-,neo-,pan-,vice-,e.g.autobiography(biographywrittenbyoneself),neo-Nazi(newNazi),Pan-America(thewholeofAmerica),vice-chairman(deputychairman).2)Suffixation:Suffixationistheformationofnewwordsbyaddingsuffixestoroots.Unlikeprefixes,whichprimarilychangethemeaningoftheroot,suffixeshaveonlyamallsemanticrole,theirprimaryfunctionbeingtochangethegrammaticalfunctionofroots.,Inotherwords,theymainlychangethewordclass.Therefore,weshallgroupsuffixesonagrammaticalbasisintonounsuffixes,verbsuffixes,adjectivesuffixes,etc.Bynounsuffixesoradjectivesuffixes,wemeanthatwhenthesuffixunderdiscussionisaddedtotheroot,whateverclassitbelongsto,theresultwillbeanounoranadjective.Forexample,-eristreatedasanounsuffixbecauseallthederivedformsfromitarenounswhetheritisfixedattheendofaverbasinemployerorofanounasinvillager.Thefirstkindiscalleddeverbalnounsandthesecondiscalleddenominalnouns.,B.ConversionConversionistheformationofnewwordsbyconvertingwordsofoneclasstoanotherclass.Thisisamethodofturningwordsofonepartofspeechtothoseofadifferentpartofspeech.Thesewordsarenewonlyinagrammaticalsense.Sincethewordsdonotchangeinmorphologicalstructurebutinfunction,thisprocessalsoknownasfunctionalshift.Lookatthewordroundinthefollowingsentences:(1)Hewasknockedoutinthefirstround.(2)Roundthenumberofftothenearesttenth.,(3)Theneighborgatheredroundourbarbecue.(4)Themoonwasbrightandround.(5)Peoplecamefromallthecountryround.Ineachsentenceroundisusedasadifferentpartofspeech:noun,verb,preposition,adjectiveandadverb.Conversionisgenerallyconsideredtobeaderivationalprocesswherebyanitemisadaptedorconvertedtoanewwordclasswithouttheadditionofanaffix.HenceitisalsocalledZero-derivation.Takesingleandsimpleforexample.,Bothareadjectives,butsinglecanbeusedasaverbwithoutchangingtheform,e.g.“Shesingledhimoutasanvictim.”Incontrast,simplecannotfunctionasaverbwithoutaddingasaffix,e.g.“Continentalquiltssimplify(notsimple)bed-making.”Thefirstinstanceisacaseofzero-derivationorconversionwhereasthesecondisoneofsuffixationasthesuffixifyisaddedtomakesimpleaverb.Wordsproducedbyconversionareprimarilynouns,adjectives,andverbs.Themostproductive,however,istheconversionthattakesplacebetweennounsandverbs.,Itdeservesnotingthatconversionisnotonlyachangeofgrammaticalfunctionofthelexicaliteminvolvedbutwithitthedifferentrangeofmeaningthatitoriginallycarried.Forexample,paperasanounhasfoursenses:a)materialinthinsheetsforwritingon,b)anewspaper,c)apieceofwritingforspecialist,andd)wallpaper.Whenturnedintoatransitiveverb,itisrelatedonlytod)asin“Shepaperedtheroomgreen.”Conversioncanbeclassifiedintothreecategoriesaccordingtowordclass:,1)Conversiontonouns:Therearetwotypesofconversiontonouns:(1)verbtonoun.Almostmonomorphemicverbscanbeusedasnouns,whicharesemanticallyrelatedtotheoriginalverbsinvariousways.Thistypeincludesthefollowingkinds.Thedeverbalnounmaybeused:a)todenotethestateofmindorsensation:desirev.tolongfor;towishn.stronglonging;earnestwishdoubt-v.tohesitatetobelieven.uncertaintyofmindwant-v.torequire;tobeinneedofn.need,b)todenoteaneventoractivity:fall-v.tocomeorgodownfreelyn.theactoffallingattempt-v.totry;tomakeastartatdoingsomethingn.efforttodosomethingsearch-v.toexamine;tolookcarefullyn.theactofsearchingc)asobjectofthegivenverb:answer-Foreignlanguagesaretaughtthroughquestionsandanswers(thatwhichareanswered)catch-Herhusbandwasagoodcatch(personworthcatching).Theysayhesgotafortuneinthebank.,d)asthesubjectofthegivenverb:cheat-Acheatisapersonwhocheats.bore-Hebecameabore(onethatcausesboredom)atlast.e)asinstrumentofthegivenverb:cover-Putthecover(somethingwithwhichtocoverthings)onthekettleandthewaterwillsoonboil.wrench-whereisyourwrench(spanner)?f)asmannerofthegivenverb:walk-Iknowhimatoncebyhiswalk(mannerofwalking).throw-aspotlightwithathrowof500feet(manneroftraveling).,g)asplaceofthegivenverb:divide-aperiodmarkingthedivide(somethingthatdivides,esp.watershed)betweentwoerasofAmericanhistoryturn-Takeaturntotheright,please.-apathfulloftwistsandturns,thatis,aplaceatwhichsomethingturns(2)adjectivetonoun:Thisconversioncanbeexplainedintermsofafixedadjectiveplusnounphrasefromwhichthenounhasbeenomitted.Typicalexamplesare:,Theyarerunninginthefinal(thefinalrace).Asfootballer,heisanatural(anaturallyskilledplayer).daily-dailynewspapercomic-comicactoryoungmarrieds-marriedpeopleweekly-weeklymagazinemonthly-monthlymagazinebimonthly-bimonthlymagazineperennial-perennialplant,2)conversiontoverb:Therearetwotypesofconversiontoverb.(1)nountoverbThistypehassevenkinds.a)toputinN:bottle-toputintoabottlecorner-toputintoadifficultsituationb)togiveNortoprovidewithN:commission-togivecommissiontomask-togiveamaskto,c)todepriveofN:core-toremovethecoreofpeel-totaketheskinoff(fruit,etc.)d)todowithN:knife-tocutorstabwithaknifebrake-tostopbymeansofabrakee)tobeoractasNwithrespecttonurse-toactasanursetopilot-toactwithapilottotomakeorchangeintoN:cash-tochangeintocashgroup-tomakeintoagroup,f)tosendorgobyN:mail-tosendbymailbicycle-togobybicyclemotor-totravelbymotorg)adjectivetoV:Thistypehastwokinds.(a)(transitiveverb)tomakeadj.ortomakemoreadj.:calm-tomakecalmdirty-tomakeorbecomedirtylower-tomakelesshigh,Thistypecanbeusedastransitiveandintransitiveverbs:Dontdirtyyourhands.(tr.)Whiteshoesdirtyveryeasily.(vi.)(b)(intransitiveverb)tobecomeadj.:dry-tobecomedryempty-tobecomeemptyThistypecanalsobeusedastransitiveorintransitiveverbs:Dryyourhands.(vt.)Thewetclotheswillsoondryinthesun.(vi.),(2)Ntoadjective:abrickgarage-Thegarageisbrick.AveryOxbridgeaccent-HisaccentisOxbridge.Thenounoccursinpredictiveaswellasattributivepositions.ItisworthnotingthatanounoftenfunctionsasapremodifierincaseswherethereisnoadjectivetoperformthatfunctionintheEnglishlanguage.Minorcategoriesofconversion:Therearethreelessminorcategoriesofconversion,chieflyusedinformally:,2)Conversiontonouns.Thistypehasthreekinds:(1)conversionfromclosedsystemwordstonouns.Therearetwopostulated/assumedmajorwordclassesintheEnglishlanguage:openclassandclosedclass,namely,opensystemwordsandclosedsystemwords.Anopenclassisonewhosemembershipisinprincipleindefiniteorunlimited,whereasaclosedclassisonewhosemembershipisfixedorlimited.Newitemsareconstantlybeingaddedtotheopenclass,asnewideas,inventions,etc.appear.,Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandadverbsareopen-classitems,thatis,opensystemwords.Newitemsarenotregularlyaddedtotheclosedclassastheyareinthecaseofopen-classitems.Pronouns,prepositions,conjunctions,articles,etc.areallclosedsystemwords.Examplesare:Hisspeechcontainstoomanyifsandbuts.Thebookisamustforstudentsofscience.Ittellsyouabouthowandwhyofflight.,(2)conversionfromaffixestonouns:Veryoccasionally,anaffixmaybeconvertedtoanoun.e.g.Thisistheageofisms.theprosandcons(3)conversionfromphrasestonouns:Phrasesorcombinationsofmorethanoneword,maysometimesbereducedtonounstatusbyconversion,e.g.WheneverIgamble,myhorseisoneofthealso-rans.(oneofthehorseswhich“alsoran”butwasnotamongthewinners.),3)Conversiontoverbs.Thisconversionfromclosedclasswordsandnonlexicalitemstoverbs.Itischieflyusedinformally.Theydownedtoolsinprotest.Shewilloffanddoherownthings.Ifyouuh-uhagain,Iwontgoonwithmystory.4)Conversiontoadjectives:Thisconversionistheconversionfromphrasestoadjectives.aface-to-faceinterviewanupper-classmanner-Hismannerisveryupper-class.,C.Compounding(Composition):Compounding,alsocalledcomposition,istheformationofnewwordsbyjoiningtwoormorestems/words.Wordsformedinthiswayarecalledcompounds.Soacompoundisa“lexicalunitconsistingofmorethanonestemandfunctioningbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyasasingleword”(Quirketal1985).Silkwormandhoney-beearecompounds;soareteargasandeasychair.TheseexamplesshowthatcompoundscanbewrittenSolid(silkworm),hyphenated(honey-bee)andopen(teargasandeasychair).Asopencompoundsarethesameinformasfreephrases,whatisthedivininglinebetweenthem?,Compoundstypicallyhaveasinglestress(agreenhouse)whereasfreephraseshaveatwo-stresspatternofanormalsyntacticgroup(agreenhouse).Acompoundoccursasaninseparablesemanticunitthatdiffersinmeaningfromafreephrase.Agreenhousemeans“abuildingmadeofglass,inwhichthetemperatureandhumiditycanberegulatedforthecultivationofthedelicateorout-of-seasonplants”,andthecolorofthegreenhouseisnotnecessarilygreen.,Acompounddoesnotallowmodificationofthefirstelementasafreephrasedoes(averygreenhouse).Inotherwords,noadverbcanbeusedtomodifythefirstelementofacompound.Thefirstelementofacompoundisnotallowedtobeturnedintoanadjectiveinthecomparativedegree,butthisruledoesnotapplytoafreephrase(agreenerhouse).,1.CharacteristicsofcompoundsCompoundsdifferfromfreephrasesinthefollowingthreeaspects.1)PhoneticfeaturesIncompoundsthewordstressusuallyoccursonthefirstelementwhereasinnounphrasesthesecondelementisgenerallystressedifthereisonlyonestress.Incasesoftwostresses,thecompoundhastheprimarystressonthefirstelementandthesecondarystress,ifany,onthesecondwhereastheoppositeistrueoffreephrases.,CompoundFreephrasebluebird:aspeciesofbirdabluebird:abirdthatisbluebluebottle:alargebuzzingflyabluebottle:abottlewhichisbluewithbluebodyMoreexamplesareasfollows:afatheadafatheadahothouseahothousetheWhiteHouseawhitehouse,Butthesestresspatternsofcompoundsarenotabsolute.Sometimes,theprimarystressmayalsofallonthesecondelementasinash-blondand,bottle-green(深绿色)aswellasincombining-formcompounds,socio-linguistics,psycho-analysis.Therefore,thisisnotalwaysreliable.2)SemanticfeaturesCompoundsaredifferentfromfreephrasesinsemanticunity.Everycompoundshouldexpressasingleideajustasoneword.Forinstance,agreenhandisan“inexperiencedperson”,notahandthatisgreenincolor;redmeatrefersto“beef”or“lamb”ratherthananymeatthatisredincolor;,hotdogisbynomeansadogthatishot,butatypicalAmericansausageinbetweentwopiecesofbread.Themeaningofsuchexamplescannotbeeasilyinferredfromthetwocomponentsofthecompounds.Nevertheless,alotofcompoundsaretransparent,thatisthemeaningcanbeinferredfromtheseparateelementsofcompounds.Considerthefollowingexamples:disaster-related,flower-pot,washingmachine,dumbshow,scarletfeverandmanyothers.Butthetwoelementsareinseparableandthechangeoftheelementwouldresultinthelossoftheoriginal

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