法律英语专题：侵权法(tort law)

TortLaw,General,TortacivilwrongwhichunfairlycausessomeoneelsetosufferlossorharmItdoesnotincludebreachofcontractortrust.(Acivilwrongcanbeatort,breachofcontractorbreachoftrust.)Purposeoftortlawtoproviderelieftotheinjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact,General,todeterothersfromcommittingthesameactUStortlawTortlawintheU.S.islargelycommonlaw.Courtshavethepowertoshapeandchangetheelementsofclaimsanddefensesofexistingtortsandthepowertocreatenewtorts.Statuteshavebeenpassedinattemptstoreformthetortsystem.,General,Mostofthemhaverelatedtoproceduralmattersandamountsandcategoriesofdamages.ManyjudgesutilizetheRestatementofTorts(2nd)asaninfluentialguide.TheRestatementisaninfluentialtreatiseissuedbytheAmericanLawInstitute,whichsummarizesthegeneralprinciplesofcommonlawUnitedStatestortlaw.Categoriesoftortsintentionaltorts,General,negligencestrictliabilitytorts,IntentionalTorts,General,DefinitionAnintentionaltortisatortresultingfromanintentionalactonthepartofthetortfeasor.Subcategoriestortsagainstthepersonassaultbatteryfalseimprisonmentintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistress,General,propertytortstrespasstolandtrespasstochattels(personalproperty)conversiondignitarytortsdefamationinvasionofprivacy,TortsAgainstthePerson,Assault,DefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesanapprehensionofimmediateharmfuloroffensivecontactApprehensionisnotthesameasfearhereitmeansawarenessthataninjuryoroffensivecontactisimminent.RequirementsTheactmustbeovert.Merewordsdonotconstituteanassault.,Assault,Theremustbeanaccompanyingact.Thedefendantmusthavetheapparentabilitytocarryoutthecontact.Actualabilitytocarryoutthecontactisnotnecessary.Theplaintiffmusthaveareasonableapprehensionofsuchcontact.Actualfearontheplaintiffspartisnotrequired.Examples,Assault,swingingabaseballbatatsomeoneholdingarockandthreateningtothrowitatsomeonepointingagunatsomeonepointingarealistictoygunatsomeoneCriminalassaultandtortiousassaultCriminalassaultcanoccurevenwhennothreatisperceivedbythevictim.Withthetortofassault,aperceivedthreatbythevictimisparamount.,Assault,Adefendantwhothrowsarockatasleepingvictimandmissescanonlybeguiltyoftheattemptedbatteryassault,sincethevictimwouldnotbeawareofthepossibleharm.,Battery,DefinitionanintentionalactthatcausesaharmfuloroffensivecontactHarmfulcontactcontactthatobjectivelyintendstoinjure,disfigure,impair,orcausepainOffensivecontactcontactthatwouldoffendapersonssenseofpersonaldignity,Battery,Examplesbeatingsomeonewithatireironspittinginsomeonesfaceknockingahatoffsomeonesheadwhippingahorseonwhichsomeonewasriding,causinghimtofallandbeinjuredmixingsomethingoffensiveinfoodthatheknowsanotherwilleattheotherdoesinfacteattheoffensivematter,Battery,diggingapitwiththeintentthatanotherwillfallintoitlatertheotherdoesinfactfallintoitCriminalandtortiousbatteryUsuallybatteryisprosecutedasacrimeonlyincasesinvolvingseriousharmtothevictim.Criminallawrecognizesdegreesofcrimesinvolvingphysicalcontact.Thereisbutasingletortofbattery.,FalseImprisonment,DefinitionthedetentionofapersoninaboundedareawithoutjustificationorconsentTheessenceofthetortisthenaturalmentalharmthatresultswhenonesfreedomisrestrictedwithoutjustification.Elementsintenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainarea,FalseImprisonment,actualconfinementawarenessoftheconfinementbythepersonsoconfinednoreasonablemeansofescapeFalsearrestFalsearrestoccurswhensomeonearrestsanotherindividualwithoutthelegalauthoritytodoso,whichbecomesfalseimprisonmentthemomentheorsheistakenintocustody.,IIED,DefinitionshortforintentionalinflictionofemotionaldistressreferredtoasthetortofoutrageinsomejurisdictionsintentionalconductthatresultsinextremeemotionaldistressElementsThedefendantmustactintentionallyorrecklessly.,IIED,Thedefendantsconductmustbeextremeandoutrageous.Theconductmustcausetheplaintifftosuffersevereemotionaldistress.SevereemotionaldistressThistortinvolvesmorethanhurtfeelings,disappointment,orworry.Theremustbeseverementalsuffering,i.e.suchthatnoreasonablepersonshouldbeexpectedtoendureit.,IIED,Thisstandardisquantifiedbytheintensity,duration,andanyphysicalmanifestations(ulcersorheadaches,forexample)ofthedistress.ExamplesApersonrefusedtoinformanotherofthewhereaboutsofthatotherschildforseveralyears,thoughthepersonknewwherethechildwastheentiretime.,IIED,Apersonsentalettertoanotherfalselyinforminghimthataclosefamilymemberofhishadbeenkilledinanaccident.,StatuteofLimitations,DefinitionanenactmentthatrestrictsthetimewithinwhichlegalproceedingsmaybeinitiatedObjectivetopreventclaimsfromarisingafterallevidencehasbeenlostorafterthefactshavebecomeobscurethroughthepassageoftime,orthedeathordisappearanceofwitnesses,StatuteofLimitations,FunctionThestatuteoflimitationsisadefensethatisordinarilyassertedbythedefendanttodefeatanactionbroughtagainsthimaftertheappropriatetimehaselapsed.ApplicationThedefendantmustraisethedefensebeforethecourtuponansweringtheplaintiffscomplaint.,StatuteofLimitations,Ifnot,heisregardedashavingwaivedthedefenseandwillnotbepermittedtouseitinanysubsequentproceedings.TollingthestatuteWhenthestatuteistolled,therunningoflimitationsissuspendeduntilsomeeventspecifiedbylawtakesplace.Mostjurisdictionsprovidethatthestatuteoflimitationsistolledundercertaincircumstances:,StatuteofLimitations,Theplaintiffisaminor.Theplaintiffhasbeendeemedinsane.Theplaintiffhasbeenconvictedofafelonyandisimprisoned.Thedefendantisinbankruptcy.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,GeneralInsomejurisdictionsoftheUS,thecourtsrecognizeacommonlawshopkeepersprivilege,underwhichashopkeeperisallowedtodetainasuspectedshoplifteronstorepropertyforareasonableperiodoftime,solongastheshopkeeperhasprobablecausetobelievethatthepersondetainedinfactcommitted,orattemptedtocommit,theftofstoreproperty.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,Thisprivilegedoesnotincludethepowerofsearch.RequisiteconditionsInvestigationonornearpremisesThedetentionitselfshouldbeeffectedeitheronthestorepremisesorintheimmediatevicinitythereof.ReasonablesuspicionTheshopkeeperhasreasonablegroundstosuspecttheparticularpersondetainedisshoplifting.,ShopkeepersPrivilege,ReasonableforceonlyOnlyreasonable,non-deadlyforceisusedtoeffectthedetention.ReasonableperiodandmannerofdetentionThedetentionitselfmaybeforonlythetimenecessarytomakeareasonableinvestigationofthefacts.,PropertyTorts,TrespasstoLand,GeneralTrespasstolandoccurswhenapersondirectlyentersuponanotherslandwithoutpermission,orremainsupontheland,orplacesorprojectsanyobjectupontheland.Thebasisforthistortistherighttoexclusivepossessionoftheland.NatureThistortisactionableperse.,TrespasstoLand,Damagesarenotrequiredtobeprovenforintentionaltrespass.Onlywhentheentryisnegligentisthereanyneedtoprovedamages.IntentTheintentrequirementoftrespassisonlythatthepersonintendedtoentertheproperty.Itisirrelevantwhetherornottheentryisamistake,causedbyignoranceoftheownershiportheboundaries.,TrespasstoLand,NoteTherightsinherentinthepossessionoflandextendaboveandbelowthesurface.,TrespasstoChattels,Definitiontheintentionalinterferencewithanotherpersonslawfulpossessionofachattel(movablepersonalproperty)Interferenceanyphysicalcontact(intermeddling)withthechattelinaquantifiablewayanydispossessionofthechattel(whetherbytakingit,destroyingit,orbarringtheownersaccesstoit),TrespasstoChattels,NoteIncasesofintermeddling,thereneedstobeactualharmsustainedbytheplaintiffinorderforhimtosue.Damagesarelimitedtotheactualharm(whichcanincludeeconomiclossasaresultofthetrespasse.g.lossofprofitonadamagedchattel).Incasesofdispossession,theplaintiffisalwaysentitledtodamagesevenifnoquantifiableharmcanbeproven.,TrespasstoChattels,ExampleHermanseeshisWarandPeacesittingonatable.Hepicksupthebook,putsitinhisbagandgoeshome.Infact,thebookbelongstoLeonandHermanhasmistakenitforhisowncopy.Inthiscase,HermanisliableforatrespasstochattelsbecauseheintendedtotakeLeonsbook,eventhoughhisactionwasbasedonareasonablemistake.,Conversion,GeneralConversionoccurswhensomeonewrongfullytakesorusespropertyofanotherfortheirownpurposesordestroysitoraltersitsnature.ConversionandtheftTheftwillalsobeconversion.Butnotallconversionsaretheftsbecauseconversionrequiresnoelementofdishonesty.,Conversion,PropertysubjecttoconversionItmustbepersonalproperty.Realpropertycannotbelostandthenfound.Itmustbetangible.money,ananimal,furniture,ortoolscropsortimber(aftertheyareseveredfromtheground)rightsinapaper,suchasalifeinsurancepolicy,astockcertificate,orapromissorynote,Conversion,ExamplesApersonhasanotherscartowedawayinordertotaketheparkingplace.Adrycleanermistakenlydeliversasuittothewrongcustomer.Amechanicborrowsasportscarheissupposedtorepairwithoutpermission.Aneighborlendsherhedgetrimmertoafriend,butthefriendusesittocutdownatree.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,GeneralThetwoconceptsarecloselyrelated.SimilarityBothincludethewrongful,intentionalinterferenceofpersonalproperty.DifferenceTheyaredifferentindegreethedamagedonetotheplaintiffspossessioninaconversioncaseismoreseverethaninatrespasscase.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,ApplicationIngeneral,whenanobjectisdamagedbutrepairable,trespasstochattelsisthemoreappropriatetort.Whensomethingisdestroyedorstolen,conversionismoreappropriate.Whentrespassisfound,apersoncanrecoverthevalueofthelostuseoftheitemandrecovertheitemitself.Conversion,instead,allowsapersontorecoverthefullvalueoftheitem.,TrespasstoChattelsandConversion,ExampleDaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogsuffersabrokenleg.ThiswouldbeanactionabletrespasstochattelsandMartywouldbeawardeddamagescommensuratewiththeharmdonebyDaphne.DaphnehitsMartysdogwithhercar.Thedogdies.Thiswouldbeanactionableconversion.Martywouldbeawardedthedogsfullvalue.,DignitaryTorts,Defamation,DefinitionthecommunicationofafalsestatementthatharmsapersonsreputationDefamatoryinformationmustbecommunicatedtoathirdperson.Typesslanderoraldefamation(spokenstatements)libelwrittendefamation(written,printedorbroadcastwords),Defamation,PublicfigurelawofdefamationApublicfigurealleginglibelmustproveactualmalice.Publicfiguresvoluntarilyplacethemselvesinapositionthatinvitesclosescrutiny.DefamationperseSomecategoriesofstatementsareconsidereddefamatoryperseinjuryispresumedandneedntbeproven.,Defamation,astatementthatnegativelyaffectsapersonsreputationrelatingtohisbusinessorprofessionallegationsthatapersonisunchasteallegationsthatapersonisinfectedwithasexuallytransmitteddiseaseallegationsthatapersonhascommittedacrimeofmoralturpitude(suchasrapeorincest)Defensestoclaimsofdefamationtruth,Defamation,opinionprivilegeevidencegivenincourtstatementsmadeinasessionofthelegislature,InvasionofPrivacy,Definitiontheintrusionintothepersonallifeofanother,withoutjustcauseCategoriesintrusionofsolitudeactualphysicalorelectronicintrusionintoapersonsprivatequartersApersonwasundressingathome,andsomeonefilmedthiswithouttellingtheperson.,InvasionofPrivacy,publicdisclosureofprivatefactsthedisseminationoftruthfulprivateinformationwhichareasonablepersonwouldfindobjectionableAnunscrupulousreporterrummagedthroughapublicfiguresgarbagetofindevidenceofprescriptiondruguseorotherhighlypersonalmatters.falselightthepublicationoffactswhichplaceapersoninafalselight,eventhoughthefactsthemselvesmaynotbedefamatory,InvasionofPrivacy,Falselightcasesareaboutdamagetoapersonspersonalfeelingsordignity,whereasdefamationisaboutdamagetoapersonsreputation.Areporterreturnedtothesceneofamassivebridgecollapseseveralyearsafterthetragedy.Thereporterattemptedtointerviewthewidowofamanwhodiedinthecrash.Thewidowandherchildrenwerenotathomesothereporterfabricatedastoryaboutthemwhichplacedtheminafalselightinthepubliceye.,InvasionofPrivacy,appropriationtheunauthorizeduseofapersonsnameorlikenesstoobtainsomebenefitsAlocalrestaurantusedacelebritysnameorimageinacommercialandimpliedanofficialendorsement.,Negligence,General,DefinitionconductthatbreachesastandardofcaredeemedbythelawasnecessarytoprotectothersfromunreasonablerisksofharmgenerallyexpressedasabreachofadutyElementsThedefendantowedadutyofcaretotheplaintiff;,General,thedefendantbreachedthatduty;andasaresultofthedefendantsbreachofthatduty,theplaintiffsufferedinjury.,StandardofCare,GeneralAllpeopleareunderadutytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.Duringatrial,theconductofthedefendantisreviewedtodetermineifheorshehasmetthereasonablepersonstandard.Wouldareasonablepersonhaveactedsimilarlyundersimilarcircumstances?,StandardofCare,Reasonablepersonahypotheticalpersoninsocietywhoshowsaveragecare,skillorjudgmentinconductItisnotanaverageortypicalperson.Itisacompositeofacommunitysjudgmentastohowatypicalmemberofthatcommunityshouldbehaveinsituationsthatmightposeathreatofharmtothepublic.,StandardofCare,Eventhoughthemajorityofpeopleinthecommunitymaybehaveinacertainway,thatdoesnotestablishthestandardofconductofthereasonableperson.ReasonablepersonstandardApersonhasactednegligentlyifshehasdepartedfromconductexpectedofareasonablyprudentpersonactingundersimilarcircumstances.,StandardofCare,Itisacompletelyobjectivetestunderwhichsubjectiveelementsarenormallynottakenintoaccount.Subjectivetraitsofthetortfeasormaybeconsidered,buttheyareconsideredaccordingtoanobjectivestandard.,Causation,GeneralToestablishcausationinnegligencecasestheplaintiffmustprovethatthedefendantsactwasboththecause-in-factandtheproximatecauseofhisinjuries.Cause-in-factThebut-fortestWouldtheplaintiffhavebeeninjuredbutfortheactofthedefendant?,Causation,ThesubstantialfactortestWasthedefendantsactionasubstantialfactorincausingtheplaintiffsinjury?ProximatecauseThedirectnesstestThedefendantsactistheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjuryifthereisanunbrokensequenceofeventsbetweentheactandtheharm.Theforeseeabilitytest,Causation,Itissufficientifareasonablepersonwouldhaveforeseentheharmfulresults.InterveningcauseaneventwhichoccursafterthedefendantsnegligentacthasoccurredandwhichcontributestotheinjuryIftheinterveningcausewastheproximatecauseoftheplaintiffsinjury,thedefendantsactwillnotbeconsideredtheproximatecause.,Causation,Iftheinterveningcausewasforeseeable,thedefendantwilloftenbeheldliableforthisadditionalharm.,NIED,GeneralshortfornegligentinflictionofemotionaldistressacontroversialcauseofactionavailableinnearlyallUSstatesbutseverelyconstrainedandlimitedinthemajorityofthemNIEDandIIEDInanactionforNIEDthereisnoneedtoproveintenttoinflictdistress.,NIED,Anaccidentalinfliction,ifnegligent,issufficienttosupportacauseofaction.UnderlyingconceptOnehasalegaldutytousereasonablecaretoavoidcausingmentaldistresstoanotherindividual.Ifonebreachesthisdutyandunreasonablycausesmentaldistresstoanotherindividual,hewillbeliablefordamagestotheinjuredindividual.,ContributoryNegligence,DefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryifhisorherownactsoromissionscontributetotheinjuryBurdenofproofInsomejurisdictions,thedefendanthastoprovethenegligenceoftheplaintifforclaimant.Inothers,theburdenisontheplaintifftodisprovehisownnegligence.,ContributoryNegligence,DisadvantageItisoftenregardedasunfairbecauseunderthedoctrineavictimwhoisatfaulttoanydegree,includingonly1%atfault,willbedeniedcompensationentirely.ResultIthasbeendeletedasadefensefromthevastmajorityofstatutesandreplacedwithcomparativenegligence.,ComparativeNegligence,Definitionadefensethatreducestheamountofdamagesthataplaintiffcanrecoverinanegligence-basedclaimbaseduponthedegreetowhichtheplaintiffsownnegligencecontributedtotheinjuryTypesPurecomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffis90%atfaultheorshecanstillrecover10%ofhislosses.,ComparativeNegligence,PartialcomparativenegligenceIfaplaintiffismorethan50%atfaultheorshecannotrecover.,AssumptionofRisk,DefinitionadefensethatbarsaplaintifffromrecoveryagainstanegligenttortfeasoriftheplaintiffvoluntarilyandknowinglyassumedtherisksinherenttotheactivityinwhichheparticipatedRationaleUponassumptionoftherisk,thereisnolongeradutyofcarerunningfromthedefendanttotheplaintiff.,AssumptionofRisk,Withoutadutyowedbythedefendant,therecanbenonegligenceonhispart.ClassificationsExpressassumptionofriskoccurswhenaplaintiffexplicitlyagreestotakeonarisk.Thisisoftendonethroughacontract.Impliedassumptionofriskoccurswhentheplaintiffsactionsimplythathehasconsentedtoassumetherisk.,AssumptionofRisk,ExampleJoebrokehisarmwhenhefellintoamanholewhilewalkingdownthestreetinatown.Theareawherethemanholewashadbeenropedoffandlargesignspostedwarningpedestrianstoavoidit.Initsdefense,thetownmayraisethedoctrineofassumptionofrisk.,StrictLiabilityTorts,General,StrictliabilityStrictliabilityisliabilitywithoutfault(suchasnegligenceortortiousintent).Undercertaincircumstances,aplaintiffmaybeallowedrecoveryevenifthereisnofaultonthepartofthedefendant.ApplicationStrictliabilityisoftenimposedonthoseengagedinabnormallydangerousactivities.,General,Strictliabilityisalsoimposedonsellersandmanufacturersofproducts.,AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Definitionanactivitythatissoinherentlydangerousthatapersonengagedinitcanbeheldstrictlyliableforinjuriescausedtoanotherperson,evenifhehastakeneveryreasonableprecautiontopreventothersfrombeinginjuredalsotermedinherentlydangerousactivityorultrahazardousactivityCategories,AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Transportation,storage,anduseofultrahazardousmaterialsdynamiteandotherexplosivesradioactivematerialscertainhazardouschemicalsKeepingofdangerousanimalswildanimals(i.e.animalsthatarenotnormallydomesticatedinthatarea)domesticatedanimalsthathaveaknownpropensityfordangerousbehavior(e.g.,adogthathasattackedpeoplebefore),AbnormallyDangerousActivity,Theseactivitiesareallowableaslongasnoharmoccurs.ExceptionApersonwhoisinjuredbyoneoftheseactivitieswhiletrespassingonthepropertyofthepersonengagedintheactivityisbarredfromsuingunderastrictliabilitytheory.Instead,heorshemustprovethatthepropertyownerwasnegligent.,ProductLiability,DefinitiontheresponsibilityofamanufacturerorvendorofgoodstocompensateforinjurycausedbydefectivemerchandisethatithasprovidedforsaleProductliabilityclaimsintheUSnegligenceclaimsstrictliabilityclaimsbreachofwarrantyclaimsvariousconsumerprotectionclaims,ProductLiability,StrictliabilityclaimsGeneralStrictliabilityisappliedcommonlytodangerouslydefectiveproducts.Themanufacturerandanysellerofaproductcanbeheldliableeveniftheyhaveexercisedall