自整英语语言学

一. 名词解释Chapter 1 Introduction引言1. linguistic语言Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.语言学一般被定义为语言的科学研究。2. general linguistics一般语言学The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.作为整体而言的语言研究经常被成为一般语言学。3. phonetics语音学The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.语言交际中语音的研究导致了语音学的建立。4. morphology形态学The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study called morphology.对这些符号的排列方式和组合方式的研究构成了语言学研究的分支形态学。5. syntax句法The study of the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in languages is called syntax.句子的组合形式的研究称之为句法。6. semantics语义学The study of meaning is known as semantics.意义的研究被称为语义学。7. pragmatics语用学When the study of meaning is conducted，not in isolation，but in the context of language use，it becomes another branch of linguistic study called pragmatics.当意义的研究是进行的，不是孤立的，而是在语言运用的语境中，它就称为语言学的另一个分支，语用学。8. sociolinguistics社会语言学The studies of all the social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branch called sociolinguistics.研究社会各方面的语言和社会形势的关系为核心的分支叫做社会语言学。9. psycholinguistics心理语言学Psycholinguistics relates the study of language to psychology.心理语言学研究的是语言和心理学。10. descriptive描写性If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use，it is said to be descriptive.如果一个语言研究的目的是为了描述和分析语言的实际上的使用，那么它是描述性的。11. prescription规定性If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say，it is said to be prescription.如果语言研究的目的是制定规则，告诉人们什么是他们应该说的，什么是不应该说的，那么它是规定性的。12. synchronic共时性The description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.历史上某一语言的描述是一个共时性的研究。13. diachronic历时性The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.语言通过时间发生变化的描述是一个历时性的研究。14. langue语言Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by.语言是语言使用者必须遵守的习惯和规则的设置。15. parole言语Parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.言语是对规则应用的具体使用。16. competence语言能力Competence is a native speakers unconscious，implicit knowledge of rules that underline his or her judgements of grammaticality and meaning.语言能力是指一个母语使用者的无意识的语法和意义的判断规则的内隐知识。17. performance语言运用Performance is the actual events of language production and comprehension.语言运用是指语言产生和理解的实际事件。18. language语言Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是一个符号系统，人们借助它来实现交流的目的。Chapter 21. phonetics语音学Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language；it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds language.语音学是关于语言的声音媒介的研究，它关注的是所有发生在世界的语言的声音。2. phonology音系学、音韵学Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.音系学的目的是要发现在语言形式上的语音是如何形成的，以及这些声音是如何在语言交际中传递意义的。3. phone音素A phone is phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.音素是语音单位或分部。在语言交流中，我们听到的所有声音都是音素。4. phoneme音位A phoneme is a phonological unit；it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound，but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.一个音位是一个语音单元，它是一个具有独特价值的单位，它是一个抽象的单位，它不是一种特殊的声音，而是在特定的语音环境中用某个特定的因素来表示或实现的。5. allophone音位变体The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.不同的语音环境中，能够代表一个音位的不同因素被称为音位变体。6. phonemic contrast音位对立Phonemiccontrastreferstoarelationbetweendifferentphonemes.Theycantakethesamepositioninasoundcombinationbuttheycausedifferenceinmeaning.音位对立指不同音位之间的关系。它们在一个声音组合里占有同一位置，但却会导致意义的不同。7. complementary distribution互补分布Twoallophonesofthesamephonemeoccurindifferentenvironments,buttheynevercontrasteachother.Thesetwoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.两个来自相同音位的音位变体在不同的环境中，但他们从不互相对比，这两个音位变体是互补分布的。8. sequential rules序列规则The rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.在一种特定的语言中，语音的组合是受规则制约的，这些规则叫做系列规则。9. assimilation rule同化规则The assimilation rule assimilates one sound similar to the following one by copying one of its phonetic features.同化规则类似于复制一个它的语音特点。10. deletion rule省略规则The rule governing the deletion of a sound in the certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.在特定的语音环境中删除一个声音的规则叫做省略规则，虽然这个声音被表示在拼写上。11. surprasegmental features超切分特征The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features.发生在切分层面上的音位特征被称为超切分特征。12. stress重音When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is pronounced with great force than the other or others.当一个词的某个音节重读时，意味着音节比其他的有更大的力量。13. word stress词重音The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.重音在英语单词中的位置区别意义。14. tone音调，声调Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. First : level. Second: rise. Third: fall-rise. Fourth: fall.音调是音调的变化，这是由不同的声带振动引起的。音高的变化可以区分意义就像音素，因此，声调是一个超切分特征。15. intonation语调When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language, especially in a language like English.当音高、重音和声音的长度与句子中的句子联系而不是孤立的，它们被统称为语调。语调在几乎每一种语言中都具有重要的意义，尤其是像英语这种语言。Chapter 31. morphology形态学Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.形态学是语法的一个分支，它研究词汇的内部结构，并通过哪些规则构成词汇。2. morpheme词素Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.词素是语言中最小的意义单位。3. free morpheme自由语素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. 自由语素是独立的意义单位，可以独自使用或与其它语素结合。4. bound morphemes黏着语素Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，必须与其它语素相结合以组成一个单词的语素。5.root词根A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根常被看做一个词的一部分，虽然它有明确的含义，但它必须与另一个词根或词缀相结合形成一个词。6.affixe词缀Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational词缀有两类：曲折词缀和派生词缀。7.derivational morphemes 派生词素Added to an existing form to create a word. such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem.把词素添加到现有单词表创建一个字，这种构词法称为派生词。8.inflectional morphemes 曲折词素Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories.曲折词缀和曲折词素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴。9.prefix前缀Prefix occur at the beginning of a word. It modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word, except the prefixes be-,and en-.前缀发生在一个单词的开头，它改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性，除了be和en10.suffix后缀Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.后缀一般加在词末，改变词的意思，一般情况下改变词的词性。11.compounding复合Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.如同衍生，复合是另一种流行的形成新的英语单词的方法，复合可以看做是两个或两个以上的词来创建新的单词。12. Orthographically书写特征A compound can be written as one word with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words. 一个复合词可以写成中间有连字符号，或者分开写。13.Syntactically句法特征The part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element. 一个复合词的语音一般由二元部分的语音确定。14.Semantically句义特征The meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meaning of its components. 一个复合词的意义一般是地道的，都不是其构成成分的意义的总合。15.phonetically语音特征The stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress. 复合词的重音往往落在第一个元素。Chapter 41.syntax句法Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.句法是语言学的一个分支，研究句子的形成规律。2. Sentence A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command.句子是一个结构上独立的单位，通常包含几个单词组成一个完整的语句问题或命令。3. Subject主语The referring expression is grammatically called subject.是指在语法上称为主体。4. Predicate谓语The part of a sentence which comprise a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate.句子的一部分包含限定动词或动词词组，这被称为谓语。5. A simple sentence (Finite Clause定式句)consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句6.A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”. The two clauses in a coordinate sentence are structurally equal parts of the sentence; neither is subordinate to the other并列句7.A complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentence have unequal status, one subordinating the other.复杂句8. Syntactic movement and movement rules句法位移和移位规则Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new position. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called transformational rules.当句子中的一个成分从它的移动中移动时，发生了句法运动；句法运动是由规则决定的，传统上称为移动规则。9. transformation rules转换规则Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence.句法运动受转换规则的支配，转换规则的操作可能会改变一个句子的句法表达。Chapter 51.semantics语义学Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可以简单定义为语言意义的研究。2.sense意义Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。3.reference所指Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。Sense and reference are two related but different aspects of meaning. 意义和所指是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。4.synonymy同义词Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。5.polysemy一词多义现象The same one word may have more than one meaning. This is what we call polysemy, and such a word is called a polysemic word. The fact is the more commonly used a word is, the more likely it has acquired more than one meaning.同一个单词可能有一个以上的意义，这就是我们所说的一词多义，这样的词叫多义词。一个词越常用，它就越可能获得一个以上的意义。6. antonymy 反义关系The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.反义关系用以指意义的相反。意义上相反的词叫反义词。7.componential analysis 成分分析法Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. 成分分析法是一种用来分析单词意义的方法，它是由结构语义学家提出的。8. Predication analysis 述谓结构分析法It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis.述谓结构分析法是一种由英国语言学家G Leech 提出的句子意义分析方法。9. predication谓词In semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is called predication. The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.在句子的语义分析中，基本单位称为谓词，谓词是句子意思的抽象。10.the grammatical meaning句法意义The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality,i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 一个句子的句法意义是指它的语法性，即语法合法性。由语法规则。11.semantic meaning 语义The semantic meaning of a sentence is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.句子在语义上是否有意义是受被称为选择限制的规则支配的。Chapter 6 1. pragmatics语用学Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.语用学可以被定义为对语言使用者如何使用句子进行成功交流的研究。2. context 语境，上下文 The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. Generally speaking, it consists of the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的。一般来说，它是说话人和听话人的知识共享。3. utterance meaning 话语意义 Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.话语基于句子的意思，它是在一个真实的交际环境中，或是在一个词境中的抽象意义的实现。4.locutionary cat 言内行为A locutionary act is the act of utterance words,phrases,clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexion and phonology.言内行为是言语行为的词语、短语、句子。它是通过句法表达字面意义的行为、词汇、音韵。5. illocutionary act 言外行为An illocutionary act is the act expressing the speakers intention; It is the act performed in saying something.言外行为是表达说话者的意图的行为，是在说话过程中完成的行为。6. perlocutionary act 言后行为Perlocutionary act refers to the intended effect/happening of an illocutionary act.言后行为是指预期的效果,是言外行为的发生。7.principle of conversation会话原则 人物：Paul GriceAmericanphilosopherPaulGriceconcludedthatnaturallanguagehaditsownlogic.Hisideais thatinmakingconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate.ThisgeneralprincipleiscalledtheCooperativePrinciple(CP).美国哲学家Grice提出的会话原则旨在解释会话意义。他提出自然语言有其独特的逻辑关系。他认为会话的最高原则是合作，称为合作原则。Chapter 71.historical linguistics 历史语言学Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change.历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。2. clipped words 缩略词 （burgerhamburger）Clipped words are created by dropping one or more syllables from a polysyllabic word;缩略词通常指一个多音节的词扔掉一个或几个音节，然后变成的词语。3. coinage创新词 （Kodak Xerox）Anewwordcanbecoinedtofitsomepurpose.一个新词可以为了一些目的被创造出来。4. blending紧缩法 （motel=motor+hotel）A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words.紧缩法的词是由其它词的部分组成的。5. acronyms词首字母缩略词 （CEO=Chief Executive Officer）Acronyms are words derived from the initials of several words.词首字母缩略词是来自几个单词的缩写词。6. back-formation逆构词法 （to donatederived from donation）Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsbysubtractinganaffixmistakenlythoughttobepartoftheoldword.Suchwordsarecalledback-formation.从已经存在的词减去一个词缀形成一个新的词称为逆构词法。7. functional shift功能性变化 （nounverb to brake）Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes，which is also called conversion.语言没有词缀的添加可以从谈话的一部分转移到另一部分，也就是所谓的转移。8. borrowing借用 （tea，guitar，prince，balloon，alcohol）Whendifferentculturecomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.Itisalsocalledloadwords.当不同的文化相接触，词经常从一门语言借到另一门语言，这也被称为借词、外来词。9. language change语言变化Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchangeinthegrammar.Werefertothechangeinthe grammarofalanguageaslinguisticchange.Linguisticchangeoccursinallcomponentsofthe grammar,includingchangesinthesound,morphological,syntactic,lexicalandsemanticsystems.语言变化实质上是语法变化。我们把一种语言的语法变化称为语言变化。语言变化包括语音系统、形态系统、句法系统、词汇系统和语义系统等部分的变化。Chapter 81.sociolinguistics社会语言学Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies language in social context.社会语言学是语言学的一个分支，它研究社会环境中的语言。2.speech community言语社区Aspeechcommunitythusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity(whichmayhave asfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymemberasacountry),andsharethesamelanguageora particularvarietyoflanguage.言语社区被定义为一个社区（人数小到一个家庭，大到一个国家）使用同样的语言或语言的某种变体的一群人。3.speech variety言语变体speechvarietyissometimesusedinsteadofstandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialect, pidgin,creole,etc.Speechvariationmovesonascaleofthenationallanguage,dialect,and individualwaysofcommunication.语变体可以指一种不同的语言，如标准语、方言、洋泾浜等，可以指同一语言的地域性或民族性变体，如英语中的澳大利亚英语、黑人英语等，也可以指同属一种语言的功能性言语变体，如法律语体、正式语体等。4. regionalvariation地域变异Regionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.语言的地域变异产生了地区方言。语言往往随着使用地理位置的变化而变化。地域变异是语言最易辨别的特征。5.socialvariation社会变异Socialvariationgivesrisetosociolectswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategories whichreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalandethnicbackground,aswellas theirsexandage.语言的社会变异产生了社会方言。社会方言又可以分为更小的语言类别。导致语言社会变异的主要因素包括语言使用者的不同的社会地位、经济地位、学历、职业、年龄、性别等。6. stylisticvariation文体变异Therearedifferencesassociatedwiththespeechsituation:whoisspeakingtowhomabout underwhatcircumstancesforwhatpurpose.有一些差异是说话者本人的言语在不同的言语情景中所具有的差异：言语情景即在什么情况下，为了什么目的，谁与谁讲什么。7. idiolectalvariation个人言语变异Whenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedisauniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystemofaparticularlanguage.Suchapersonaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.一个人在说话时，他在一种特定语言的总的体系内表达，但他实际上所说出的是他自己的独特的语言体系。这种个人方言被称为个人习语。8. register语域Registersarelanguagev