国际经济学(双语)-第4章

TariffsandNontariffBarriers,InternationalEconomics,Chapter4,Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection4.2Tariffs4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection,InfantIndustryArgumentThisargumentcontendsthatforfreetradetobemeaningful,tradingcountriesshouldtemporarilyshieldtheirnewlydevelopingindustriesfromforeigncompetition.,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection,Sometruthsintheinfantindustryargument:Onceaprotectivetariffisimposed,itisverydifficulttoremove,evenafterindustrialmaturityhasbeenachieved.Itisverydifficulttodeterminewhichindustrieswillbecapableofrealizingcomparativeadvantagepotentialandthusmeritprotection.Theargumentgenerallyisnotvalidformature,industrializedcountries.Theremaybeotherwaysofinsulatingadevelopingindustryfromcutthroatcompetition.Ratherthanadoptaprotectivetariff,thegovernmentcouldgrantasubsidytotheindustry.,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection,TermsofTradeArgumentInsomecases,thetermsoftradebenefitsofatariffoutweighitscosts,sothereisaterms-of-tradeargumentforatariff.Thetermsoftradeargumentagainstfreetrade,then,isintellectuallyimpeccablebutofdoubtfulusefulness.Inpractice,itisemphasizedmorebyeconomistsasatheoreticalpropositionthanitisusedbygovernmentsasajustificationfortradepolicy.,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection,DomesticMarketFailureArgumentTheoryofthesecondbestWheneconomistsapplythetheoryofthesecondbesttotradepolicy,theyarguethatimperfectionsintheinternalfunctioningofaneconomymayjustifyinterferinginitsexternaleconomicrelations.Thisargumentacceptsthatinternationaltradeisnotthesourceoftheproblembutsuggestsnonethelessthattradepolicycanprovideatleastapartialsolution.,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection,StrategicTradePolicyBecauseofthesmallnumberoffirms,theassumptionofperfectcompetitiondoesnotapply.Thereareonlyafewfirmsineffectivecompetitioninsomeindustries.Thisargumentlocatesthemarketfailurethatjustifiesgovernmentinterventioninthelackofperfectcompetition.Itispossibleinprincipleforagovernmenttoaltertherulesofthegametoshifttheseexcessreturnsfromforeigntodomesticfirms.,Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection4.2Tariffs4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,4.2Tariffs,Atariffissimplyatax(duty)leviedonaproductwhenitcrossesnationalboundaries.Importtariffv.s.ExporttariffProtectivetariffv.s.RevenuetariffTypesofTariffsSpecificTariffAdValoremTariffCompoundTariff,4.2Tariffs,EffectiveRateofProtection(ERP)thepercentagechangeinthevalueaddedinanindustrybecauseoftheimpositionofatariffstructurebythecountryratherthantheexistenceoffreetrade.,4.2Tariffs,CalculationofERP(WayI):,4.2Tariffs,CalculationofERP(WayII):,4.2Tariffs,Threegeneralrulesabouttherelationshipbetweennominalratesandeffectiveratesofprotection:Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodishigherthantheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs,thentheERPwillbehigherthanthenominalrateonthefinalgoods;Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodislowerthantheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs,thentheERPwillbelowerthanthenominalrateonthefinalgoods;Ifthenominaltariffrateonthefinalgoodisequaltotheweightedaveragenominaltariffrateontheinputs,thentheERPwillbeequaltothenominalrateonthefinalgoods.,4.2Tariffs,Twoconsequencesoftheeffectiveratecalculation:Thedegreeofeffectiveprotectionincreasesasthevalueaddedbydomesticproducersdeclines.Intheformula,thehigherthevalueofaijis,thegreatertheeffectiveprotectionrateforanygivennominaltariffrateonthefinalproductwillbe.Atariffonimportsusedintheproductionprocessreducesthelevelofeffectiveprotection.Intheformula,astirises,thenumeratoroftheformuladecreasesandhenceERPdecreases.,4.2Tariffs,Conclusionwhenmaterialinputsorintermediateproductsenteracountryataverylowdutywhilethefinalimportedcommodityisprotectedbyahighduty,theresulttendstobeahighprotectionrateforthedomesticproducers.Thenominaltariffrateonfinishedgoodsthusunderstatestheeffectiverateofprotection.Butshouldatariffbeimposedonimportedinputsthatexceedsthatonthefinishedgood,thenominaltariffrateonthefinishedproductwouldtendtooverstateitsprotectiveeffect.,4.2Tariffs,TariffEscalationThetariffstructureshavegenerallybeencharacterizedbyrisingratesthatgivegreaterprotectiontointermediateandfinishedproductsthantoprimarycommodities.Thetariffstructuresoftheindustrializedcountriesmayindeeddiscouragethegrowthofprocessing,thushamperingdiversificationintohighervalue-addedexportsforthelessdevelopedcountries,worseningthepotentialcompetitivepositionoftheless-developedcountriesinthemanufacturingandprocessingsectors.,4.2Tariffs,TariffWelfareEffectsConsumerSurplusConsumersurplusreferstothedifferencebetweentheamountthatbuyerswouldbewillingandabletopayforagoodandtheactualamounttheydopay.ProducerSurplusProducersurplusistherevenueproducersreceiveoverandabovetheminimumamountrequiredtoinducethemtosupplythegood.,4.2Tariffs,4.2Tariffs,TradeWelfareEffectofTariffinaPartialEquilibriumSettingTheSmall-NationCase,4.2Tariffs,Theredistributiveeffect(Areaa)thetransferofconsumersurplus,inmonetaryterms,tothedomesticproducersoftheimport-competingproduct.Theprotectiveeffect(Areab)thelosstothedomesticeconomyresultingfromwastedresourcesusedtoproduceadditionalclothatincreasingunitcosts.Thedomesticrevenueeffect(Areac)thetariffproceedspaidbycountryAsconsumerstoitsgovernment.Theconsumptioneffect(Aread)arisesfromthedecreaseinconsumptionresultingfromthetariffsartificiallyincreasingtheprice.Thedeadweightloss(Areasb+d)representsarealcosttoacommunity,notatransfertoothersectorsoftheeconomy.,4.2Tariffs,Levyinganimporttariff,therefore,reducesasmallcountryswelfare.,WelfareCostofaTariffImposedbyaSmallNation,4.2Tariffs,TheLarge-NationCaseTheequilibriumworldpriceisdefinedasthepriceatwhichthequantitythatconsumersinCountryAwanttoimportisequaltothequantitythatproducersinCountryBwanttoexport.Inthediagram,thispriceisdenotedbyPFT.,InternationalFree-TradeEquilibrium,4.2Tariffs,ThesizeofthetariffequalsthedifferencebetweenthepriceconsumersincountryApayfortheproduct(PT)andthepriceproducersincountryBreceive(P).Thatis,theperunittariffoftequalsPTP.,4.2Tariffs,Theredistributiveeffect(Areaa)thetransferofconsumersurplus,inmonetaryterms,tothedomesticproducersoftheimport-competingproduct.Theprotectiveeffect(Areab)thelosstothedomesticeconomyresultingfromwastedresourcesusedtoproduceadditionalclothatincreasingunitcosts.Thedomesticrevenueeffect(Areac)thetariffproceedspaidbycountryAsconsumerstoitsgovernment.Theconsumptioneffect(Aread)arisesfromthedecreaseinconsumptionresultingfromthetariffsartificiallyincreasingtheprice.Thetermsoftradeeffect(Areae)theamountofthetariffrevenuepaidbyforeignersbecausetheworldpriceoftheirexportshasfallen.,4.2Tariffs,ThechangeinwelfareincountryAbroughtaboutbytheimpositionofatariffequalse(b+d).Thisamountcouldbepositiveornegative,dependingontherelativesizesofthetwoterms.Optimaltariff:thetariffwouldbesettoalevelthatmaximizestheareae(b+d).,4.2Tariffs,TradeWelfareEffectofTariffinaGeneralEquilibriumSettingTheSmall-NationCase,4.2Tariffs,Thereductioninwelfarecomesfromtwoeffects:Theeconomynolongerproducesatapointthatmaximizesthevalueofincomeatworldprices.ThebudgetconstraintthatpassesthroughB1liesinsidetheconstraintpassingthroughB0.Consumersdonotchoosethewelfare-maximizingpointonthebudgetconstraint;theydonotmoveuptoanindifferencecurvethatistangenttotheeconomysactualbudgetconstraint.,4.2Tariffs,TheLarge-NationCase,Withtheimpositionofatariff,CountryIsoffercurveOCIshiftsinwardtoOCI.,4.2Tariffs,TheImpactofaTariff,TheequilibriumquantityofexportsfallsfromOB1toOB2,andthequantityofimportsfallsfromOA1toOA2.CountryIstermsoftradeimprovefromTOT1toTOT2.,Chapter4TariffsandNontariffBarriers,4.1TheoriesforTradeProtection4.2Tariffs4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,AnIntroductiontoNontariffTradeBarriersImportQuotaAnimportquotaisaphysicalrestrictiononthequantityofgoodsthatmaybeimportedduringaspecificperiod;thequotagenerallylimitsimportstoalevelbelowwhichimportswouldoccurunderfree-tradeconditions.Acommonpracticetoadministeranimportquotaisforthegovernmenttorequireanimportlicense.Eachlicensespecifiesthevolumeofimportsallowed,andthetotalvolumeallowedshouldnotexceedthequota.ImportquotasonmanufacturedgoodshavebeenoutlawedbytheWorldTradeOrganization.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,Tariff-RateQuota:ATwo-TierTariffatariff-ratequotadisplaysbothtariff-likeandquota-likecharacteristics.Thisdeviceallowsaspecifiednumberofgoodstobeimportedatonetariffrate(thewithin-quotatariffrate),whereasanyimportsabovethislevelfaceahighertariffrate(theover-quotatariffrate).atariffratequotaisatwo-tiertariff.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,OrderlyMarketingAgreementsAnorderlymarketingagreement(OMA)isamarket-sharingpactnegotiatedbytradingpartners.Itsmainpurposeistomoderatetheintensityofinternationalcompetition,allowinglessefficientdomesticproducerstoparticipateinmarketsthatwouldotherwisehavebeenlosttoforeignproducerswhosellasuperiorproductatalowerprice.AtypicalOMAconsistsofvoluntaryquotasappliedtoexports.Thesecontrolsareknownasvoluntaryexportrestraints(VERs);theyaresometimessupplementedbybackupimportcontrolstoensurethattherestraintsareeffective.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,DomesticContentRequirementsTolimitthepracticeofoutsourcing,organizedlaborhaslobbiedfortheuseofdomesticcontentrequirements.Theeffectofcontentrequirementsistopressurebothdomesticandforeignfirmswhosellproductsinthehomecountrytousedomesticinputs(workers)intheproductionofthoseproducts.Manufacturersgenerallylobbyagainstdomesticcontentrequirements,becausetheypreventmanufacturersfromobtaininginputsatthelowestcost,thuscontributingtohigherproductpricesandlossofcompetitiveness.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,SubsidiesNationalgovernmentssometimesgrantsubsidiestotheirproducerstohelpimprovetheirtradeposition.Governmentalsubsidiesassumeavarietyofforms,includingoutrightcashdisbursements,taxconcessions,insurancearrangements,andloansatbelow-marketinterestrates.Twotypesofsubsidies:adomesticsubsidywhichissometimesgrantedtoproducersofimport-competinggoods;anexportsubsidywhichgoestoproducersofthegoodsthataretobesoldoverseas.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,DumpingDumpingisrecognizedasaformofinternationalpricediscrimination.Itoccurswhenforeignbuyersarechargedlowerpricesthandomesticbuyersforanidenticalproduct,afterallowingfortransportationcostsandtariffduties.Sellinginforeignmarketsatapricebelowthecostofproductionisalsoconsidereddumping.Commercialdumpingisgenerallyviewedassporadic,predatory,orpersistentinnature.Eachtypeispracticedunderdifferentcircumstances.,4.3NontariffTradeBarriers,TheeffectsofanImportQuota,Intheabsenceoftrade,equilibriumwouldoccuratPointEwiththedomesticpriceofclothequalingP.Thefree-tradeequilibriumisloc