语言学pragmatics的

.,Pragmatics,Flower,.,I.Introduction,.,Whatispragmatics?,Pramaticscanbedefinedasthestudyoflanguageinuseandlinguisticcommunication.,Whydoweneedpragmaticssincewehavegrammaticalanalysis?,.,Afterwehavedonegrammaticalanalysisofasentence,thereisstillsomeaspectofmeaninguncoveredbyouranalysis.,Example:ThegrammaticalanalysisofHewenttotownyesterdaydoesnottelluswhoheis,whichtownorwhenyesterday.Inotherwords,therearestillthingsundetermined.,.,Dependingonthecontext,hecanbeanybody,anymale.Towncanrefertoanyplacebigenoughtobecalledtown.Andyesterdaycanrefertoanydayinthepast.Asaresult,thesentencemusthaveperformedmanyfunctions.,.,Fromthisbriefdiscussion,wecanseethatthecontextofasituationinwhichasentenceisusedcontributealottoitsmeaningwhichcannotbeaccountedforinpuregrammaticalanalysis.,.,II.Context2)IllocutionaryAct:themakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc.inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;3)PerlocutionaryAct:thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudiencebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesofutterance.,.,Example:,SupposethespeakersaysItscoldinhere.Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningitscoldinhere.Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindowanditsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindowortherefusaltocomplywiththerequest.,.,Thelocutionofanutteranceisactuallyitsliteralmeaning.Theillocutionofanutteranceisthespeakerscommunicativeintentionorthefunctionitisintendedtoperform.Theperlocutionofanutterancecanbeasthesameastheillocutionwhenitisrecognizedandsatisfied,orverydifferentfromitwhenitisnotrecognizedorwhenitisignored.Forexample,whentheillocutionisaninvitation,theperlocutioncaneitherbeanacceptanceorarefusal,dependingonsocialandpersonalfactors.,.,a.Illocutionaryacts,.,Whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.,.,Ex.A:Thatsthephone.(1)B:Iminthebathroom.(2)A:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyunconnectedconversationisverycoherentonaspeech-actlevel,andthatinsayingthingspeopleareinfactdoingthings.,.,b.Typesofillocutionaryacts,.,Searlesuggests5basiccategoriesofillocutionaryactsasfollows:Assertives（陈述）Directives（指令）Commissives（承诺）Expressives（表达）Declarations（宣布）,.,Assertives,Sentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsth.TypicalcasesareIthinkthefilmismovingandImcertainthathehadgotit.Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.ThecommitmentissmallinIguesshedgotitbutverystronginIsolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.,.,Directives,Sentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosth,IbegyoutogivemesomeadviceandIorderyoutoleaverightnowarebothattemptstogetsomethingdonebythehearer.Amongtheverbsthatcandenotethisgroupareask,request,plead,entreat,command,advise,etc.,.,Commissives,Sentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicofthisgroup.Interestingly,warningisalsoacommissive,asIfyousmokeagainIllbeatyoutodeath,becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsth.,.,Expressives,Sentencesthatexpressthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsth.Verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryarethank,congratulate,apologize,welcome,deploreandsoon.,.,Declarations,Sentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeintheexistingstateofaffairs.AssoonasanemployersaystoanemployeeYouarefired,theemployeeloseshis/herjob.Verbsoftenusedfordeclarationsarename,christen,nominate,point,declare,etc.,.,c.Indirectspeechacts,.,Onegroupofsentenceswhichspeechacttheoryisconcernedwitharethosesentencesthatperformoneillocutionaryactindirectlybyperforminganother,thatis,INDIRECTSPEECHACTS.,.,Canyoupassthesalt,please?isbothaquestionaboutthehearersabilitytopassthesaltandarequestofhimtopassthesalt.Theproblemhereishowitispossibleforthespeakertosayonethingandmeansomethingelse,andhowitispossibleforthehearertounderstandtheindirectspeechact.Itissuggestedthatincaseslikethismuchisreliedonthesharedbackgroundinformationandthegeneralpowersofrationalityandinferenceonthepowerofthehearer.,.,Ex.X:Letsgotothemoviestonight.Y:Ihavetostudyforanexam.InordertoworkoutthatYsutteranceisarefusal,Xhastogothroughaprocessofinferencelikethis.IhavemakeaproposaltoYandarelevantresponsemustbeoneofacceptanceorrejectionorfurtherdiscussion.Buthisreplywasnoneofthese,sohisillocutionmustbedifferentfromtheliteralmeaning.Iknowthatstudyingforanexamtakesalotoftimeandgoingtomoviesalsotakesalotoftime.Heprobablycannotdobothinoneevening.Probablyhisprimaryillocutionaryactistorejectmyproposal.,.,Inpractice,noonewouldconsciouslygothroughthisprocess;butthisissupposedtobeinthewayindirectsppechactswork.Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Theirindirectnesshascertaincharactersticsthattendtogroupsentencesofrequestintothefollowingtypes:,.,Group1,Sentencesconcerningthehearersabilitytodosth.:ex.Canyourunanother5,000meters?Couldyourunawayfromthetalonsofthechengguan?,.,Group2,Sentencesconcerningthespeakerswishorwantthatthehearerwilldosth.:Iwouldlikeyoutofetchmycellphonefromthecompany.Iwouldappreciateifyoucouldsaveaseatforme.Idratheryoudidntbelateanymore.IdbeverymuchobligedifyouwouldgototheQixiaMountainwithme.,.,Group3,Sentencesconcerningthehearersdoingsth.:Wouldyoukindlygetoffmyfoot?Wontyoustopmakingthatnoise?,.,Group4,Sentencesconcerningthehearersdesireorwillingnesstodosth.:Doyouwanttogotothelibrarywithmenow?WoulditbeconvenientforyoutocomeovertoplaySanguosha,theboardgameonFridayafternoon?Woulditbetoomuchtroubleforyoutotakemybagback?,.,Group5,Sentencesconcerningreasonsfordoingsth.:Youshouldwritetothemeverynowandthen.Mustyoumakethatnoisewheneveryouarereading?Youdbetterbookthetickets2weeksinadvance.,.,Sometimeswehavesentencesthathavemorethanoneoftheseelements,withoneinsideanother:WoulditbetoomuchtroubleifIsuggestedthatyoucouldpossiblymakealittlelessnoise?,.,d.Difficultiesinspeechacttheory,.,Oftenanutterancedoesnotperformonlyoneact,buttwoorthreeacts,anditisnotalwayseasytodecidewhatactoractsanutteranceperforms.Ex.IfamothersaystoachildIsthatyourcoatonthefloor?,.,Sometimestwounrelatedactsareperformedbyoneutteranceanditislefttothehearertochoose.Ex:A:Theysayi