TG grammar阶段PPT课件

.,1,4.8FivestagesofdevelopmentofTGgrammar,.,2,Fivestagesofdevelopment,1)TheClassicalTheory,whichaimstomakelinguisticsascience.SyntacticStructures,19752)TheStandardTheory,whichdealswithhowsemanticsshouldbestudiedinalinguistictheoryAspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax,19653)TheExtendedStandardTheory,whichfocusesdiscussiononlanguageuniversalsanduniversalgrammarStudiesonSemanticinGenerativeGrammar,19724)TheRevisedExtendedStandardTheory(orGB),whichfocusesonGovernmentandBindingLecturesonGovernmentandBinding,19815)TheMinimalistProgram,whichisafurtherrevisionoftheprevioustheory.TheMinimalProgram,1995MinimalistInquiries:TheFramework,1998,.,3,4.8.1TheclassicalTheory,1)Itaimstomakelinguisticsascience:2)Itsfeatures:EmphasizingongenerativeabilityoflanguageIntroducingtransformationalrulesGrammaticaldescriptionregardlessofmeaning3)Chomskyputforwardthreekindsofgrammar:FinitestategrammarPhrasestructuregrammarTransformationalgrammar,.,4,4.8.2Threekindsofgrammar,1)ThefinitestategrammarItisthesimplesttypeofgrammarwhich,withafiniteamountofapparatus,cangenerateaninfinitenumberofsentences.Buttheyallareverysimpleintheirstructure.Chomskydevisesthisgrammartoshowtheimpracticalityoforganisingalanguagefromaleft-to-rightorder.,.,5,2)ThefinitestategrammarItisappropriatetodescribe“stimulus-response”processoflearning,butitisinappropriatetoexplainthecomplexitiesofthehumancognitivesystem.Itcontainsdeepstructureandsurfacestructure.Deepstructure:theabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction.Surfacestructure:thefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruction,.,6,Deepstructureandsurfacestructure,Inbrief,thesentencesthathavetheformthatpeoplecanactuallysayarecalledsurfacestructures.Butthedeepstructuremeansthefactthatspeakerstrytoconveythemessageofthesentence.Thatistosay,thesurfacestructureoflanguagedeterminestheformofsentences,whiledeepstructuredeterminesmeaningofsentences.Forexample,(1).Theglassisbroken(2).BreakingtheglassThoughtheformofsentencesisdifferent,butthemessageconveyedissame.Thefactthatweknowtheglassisbrokenisthedeepstructureofsentence,butthetwoformsofsentencesthatconveythefactisthesurfacestructure.,.,7,3)PhrasestructuregrammarItconsistssolelyofphrase-structurerulesthatformalisesomeofthetraditionalinsightsofconstituentstructureanalysis.Thisgrammarhasgreatergenerativepowersthanafinitestategrammar.,.,8,4)Phrasestructuregrammar,Thephrasestructurerules(alsocalledrewritingrules)areasfollows:a.SNP+VPb.VPVerb+NPc.NPNP(single)NP(plural)d.NP(s)D+Ne.NP(p)D+N+sf.Dtheg.Nman,ball,door,dog,book,h.Verbaux+Vi.Vhit,take,bite,eat,walk,j.AuxTense(+M)(+have+en)(+be+ing)k.TensePresentPastl.Mwill,can,may,shall,must,.,9,5)Phrasestructuregrammar,Phrasestructurerulesarecalledrewritingrules.Thegenerativeprocessofasentenceistheprocessofrewritingonesymbolintoanother.Forexample,howtoformthesentence“Themanhittheball”?Wemustuserulesandrepresentthemby“bracketing”and“diagramming”.,.,10,TheGenerativeProcessofASentence:Bracketing:(NP(Det(the)N(man)VP(V(hit)NP(Det(the)N(ball)Diagraming:SNPVPDetNVerbNPDetNthemanhittheball,.,11,6)Transformationalrules(T-rules)aretheoperationsthatadd，deleteorchangeelementsinonestructuretoproduceanotherstructure.Itreferstoalltherulesthatapplyafteralllexiconitemshavebeeninsertedintothestructures.7)Chomskyhaslisted16transformationalrulesforEnglish.Forexample:Jackhasnotfinishedhiswork.ThefirstpartisanNP.Thesecondpartcanbeanalysedintoa“concordelement”(Forrealisationoftheinflectedformslike“has”,etc.),representedbyC,plusamodalverb,have,thatis,“C+have”.Thethirdpartcanberepresentedwithanellipsis,foritisnotimportant.,.,12,Structuralanalysis:NP-C+have-Structuralchanges:X1-X2-X3X1-X2+nt-X3,EachpartssubstituedwithX1,X2,X3,Thetransformationalrulefornegationoftheformer,.,13,8)Phrasestructuregrammar,Twokindsoftransformationalrule:obligatoryandoptionalthetransformationofnegation,thepassivevoice,etc.Thetransformationofauxiliariesandparticles,.,14,4.8.3Somedefectsinthetheory,Thetransformationalrulesaretoopowerful.Therulesmaygenerateill-formedsentencesaswellaswell-formedones.Forexample,withtherulesSNP+VP,andVPV+NP,theremightbegeneratedthefollowingtwo:SSNPVPNPVPVNPVNPJohndrinkwinewinedrinkJohnThetransformationalrulesforthepassivevoicecannotbeusedatwill,forsomeoftheEnglishverbsdonothavepassivestructures.,.,15,SNPAuxVPDetNPPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.SNPAuxVPNPNPThemotheroftheboyandthegirlwillarrivesoon.,phrasestructureistooflexible,.,16,4.9ThestandardTheory,1)Chomskysaysthatagenerativegrammarshouldconsistofthreecomponents:syntactic,phonologicalandsemantic.Therelationshipsofthethreecomponentscanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram:,.,17,SyntacticcomponentBaseComponent,RewritingRules,Lexicon,DeepStructure,T-Rules,SurfaceStructure,SemanticComponent,PhonologicalRules,SemanticRepresentation,PhonologicalRepresentation,Re-writingRulesgeneratedeepstructureofsentence,transformationalrulestransformdeepstructureintosurfacestructure.semanticcomponentmakessemanticinterpretationondeepstructure,phonologicalcomponentmakesphonologicalinterpretationonsurfacestructure.,.,18,2)ItsadvantagesovertheClassicalTheoryTransformationcanonlychangetheformsofsentencesandarenotallowedtoalterthemeaning.ToruleoutthegenerationofsentenceslikeWinedrinksJohn,thereisnowaselectionalrestrictiontoensurethattheanimatenounappearsbeforetheverbandinanimatenounappearsaftertheverb.Restrictionsareputontransformationsinordernottogenerateill-formedsentences.Accordingtore-writingrules,sentencescanbeembedded,thus,thetheorynowcoversnotonlysimplesentencesbutalsocomplexones.Theruleareproperlyorderedandthereisasetorderinwhichtherulesapply.,.,19,3)ProblemsunsolvedinthetheoryThetransformationalrulesarestilltoopowerful,fortheycanmoveordeletelinguisticsegments,changethecategories,keeptheoriginalmeaningintact,andvaryaccordingtospecificcircumstances.Derivednounsandtheircorrespondingverbsareirregularnotonlyintermsofsyntacticfeatures,butalsoinphonologicalandsemanticrelations,whichisignoredintheStandardTheory.,.,20,TheStandardTheoryholdsthatsemanticinterpretationsaredeterminedbythedeepstructure,andtransformationalprocesswillnotchangethesentencemeaning.Laterthiswasfoundtobeimpossible.Becauseanykindoftransformationswillchangethesentencemeaning.Forexample,sentence“(1)Everyonelovessomeone”isdifferentfrom“(2)Someoneislovedbyeveryone”.TheStandardTheorycannotexplaingappedstructuresas:Johnatesomespaghetti,andMarysomemacaroni.Investigationsofmoretypeofrulesshowedthatmanytransformationalrulesmusthavecomplexconstraintsinorderthattheydonotproduceungrammaticalsentences.,.,21,5.1TheExtendedStandardTheoryandLaterTheories,.,22,5.1.1TheExtendedStandardTheory,1)IntheExtendedStandardTheory,ChomskyrevisedhisStandardTheorytwice.2)Inhisfirstrevision,Chomskymovedpartofsemanticinterpretationtothesurfacestructure.Letustakethecategoriesofthelogicalcomponentforexample:(1).Notmanyarrowshitthetarget(2).ManyarrowsdidnhitthetargetThedeepstructureis“NOT”.Throughtransformations,thetwosentencesdiffersemanticallyduetologicalcomponentNOT.Thus,semanticinterpretationdoesplayrolesinsurfacestructure.ButChomskystillbelievessemanticisdeterminedbydeepstructure.3)Thesecondrevisioninvolvesthewholetheoreticalframework,whichcanbeillustratedbythefollowingdiagram.*ThemostremarkablechangeisthatChomskynowcompletelyputssemanticinterpretationinthesurfacestructure.,.,23,Phrasestructure;LexiconTheTransformationalComponentPhonologicalRulesSemanticInterpretativeRules,TheBaseComponent,DeepStructure,SurfaceStructure,PhonologicalRepresentation,LogicalFormRepresentation,.,24,5.1.2GovernmentandBinding,1)TGgrammarentersthefourthperiodofdevelopmentwiththeoryofGB.ThistheoryconsistsofX-barTheory,-Theory,BoundingTheory,GovernmentTheory,CaseTheory,ControlTheory,andBindingTheory.2)InthetheoryofGovernmentandBinding,thereisanewconcept:theemptycategory.Chomskybelievesthatthroughtheemptycategory,wecanfurthergettoknowaboutthemechanismoflanguage.Butthistheoryisnotyetmature.,.,25,3)Gonvernmentandbindingtheory(/wiki/Government_and_binding_theory)Thenamereferstotwocentralsubtheoriesofthetheory:government,whichisanabstractsyntacticrelation,andbinding,whichdealswiththereferentsofpronouns,anaphors,andreferentialtheory.GBwasthefirsttheorytobebasedontheprinciplesandparametersmodeloflanguage,whichalsounderliesthelaterdevelopmentsoftheMinimalistProgram.,.,26,GovernmentGovernmentisdefinedasfollows:AgovernsBifandonlyifAisagovernorandAm-commandsBandnobarrierintervenesbetweenAandB.Governorsareheadsofthelexicalcategories(V,N,A,P)andtensedI(T).Am-commandsBifAdoesnotdominateBandBdoesnotdominateAandthefirstmaximalprojectionofAdominatesB.ThemaximalprojectionofaheadXisXP.Thismeansthatforexampleinastructurelikethefollowing,Am-commandsB,butBdoesnotm-commandA:,.,27,BindingBindingcanbedefinedasfollows:Anelementbindsanelementifandonlyifc-commands,andandcorefer.ConsiderthesentenceJohnsawhismother.whichisdiagrammedbelowusingsimplephrasestructurerules.TheNPJohnc-commandshisbecausethefirstparentoftheNP,S,containshis.Johnandhisarealsocorererential(theyrefertothesameperson),thereforeJohnbindshis.,.,28,(1)Johnsawhim.(2)Johnsawhimself.(3)HimselfsawJohn.(4)JohnsawJohn.Bindingisused,alongwithparticularbindingprinciples,toexplaintheungrammaticalityofthosestatements.TheapplicablerulesarecalledBindingPrincipleA,BindingPrincipleB,andBindingPrincipleC.PrincipleA:ananaphor(reflexiveorreciprocal,suchaseachother)mustbeboundinitsgoverningcategory(roughly,theclause).Sincehimselfisnotc-commandedbyJohninsentence3,PrincipleAisviolated.PrincipleB:apronounmustbefree(i.e.,notbound)withinitsgoverningcategory(roughly,theclause).Insentence1,himisboundbyJohn,violatingPrincipleB.PrincipleC:anR-expressionmustbefree(i.e.,notbound).R-expressions(e.g.thedogorJohn)arereferentialexpressions:unlikepronounsandanaphora,theyindependentlyrefer,i.e.,pickoutentitiesintheworld.Insentence4,thefirstinstanceofJohnbindsthesecond,violatingPrincipleC.,.,29,5.2TheMinimalistProgram,1)TheMinimalistProgramismotivatedbytworelatedquestions:Whatarethegeneralconditionsthatthehumanlanguagefacultyshouldbeexpectedtosatisfy?Towhatextentisthelanguagefacultydeterminedbytheseconditions,withoutaspecialstructurethatliesbeyondthem?,.,30,2)Remarkablechangesinthenewtheory:SomeofthediscreteanalyticalmodelsintheGBarediscardedandthetwolevelsofanalysis,thedeepstructureandthesurfacestructure,areleftout.Theimportantconceptof“government”intheprevioustheoryisrejectedandthefactsinterpretedbythetheoryofgovernmentarereplacedbyseveralrevisedconcepts,thusthetheoryofgovernmenthasturnedfromasubsystemofuniversalgrammarintotheinterpretativeconstraintoftheoutputcondition.,.,31,3)Inthe1990s,ChomskyfurtherdevelopedtheminimalisttheoryinhisMinimalistInquiries:TheFramework(1998).Inhiswork,ChomskyholdsthattheinitialstatesofhumanlanguagesarethesamewhereasthestatesofacquiringdifferentlanguagesarenotWhilethefacultyoflanguageconsistsofacognitivesystemthatstoresinformationsuchassound,meaning,andstructures,theperformancesystemretrievesandusestheinformation.Heraisesaprofoundquestion:Howwellisthelanguagefacultydesigned?ChomskyimaginesacaseinwhichacertainprimatewhichhasbeenrecognizeditsmindbygivingitthefacultyoflanguageThus,heputforwardthestrongestminimalistthesis:Linguisticmechanismistheidealsolutiontotheproblemoflegibilityconditions.,.,32,5.3ReconsiderationonTGGrammar,.,33,5.3.1Itsconsistentaimsandpurposes,ThedevelopmentofTGGrammarcanberegardedasaprocessofconstantlyminimalizingtheoriesandcontrollingthegenerativepowers.Althoughithasinvolvedputtingforward,revising,andcancelingofmanyspecificrules,hypotheses,mechanisms,andtheoreticalmodels,itsaimsandpurposeshavebeenconsistent,i.e.toexplorethenature,originandtheusesofhumanknowledgeonlanguage.,.,34,5.3.2ItsMainFeatures,1）Chomskydefineslanguageasasetofrulesorprinciples.2)Hebelievesthattheaimoflinguisticistoproduceagenerativegrammarwhichcapturesthetacitknowledgeofthenativespeakerofhislanguage.3)Chomskyandhisfollowersareinterestedinanydatathatrevealthenativespeakerstacitknowledge.Theyseldomusewhatnativespeakersactuallysay;theyrelyontheirownintuition.4)Themethodologyishypothesis-deductive.5)Itfollowsrationalisminphilosophyandmentalisminpsychology.,.,35,5.3.3Theinfluence,Inthelate1950s,theappearanceofTGGrammarinAmericaviolentlypunchedtheprevailingstructuralistdescriptivelinguistics.Chomskystheoriesarepopular,particularlyintheUnitedState,buttheyhaveneverbeenfreefromcontroversy.Criticismhascomefromanumberofdifferentdirections.Somecritics(seelanguagelearning)havequestionedwhetheritisnecessarytopositUniversalGrammarinordertoexplainchildlanguageacquisition,arguingthatdomain-generallearningmechanismsaresufficient.Todaytherearemanydifferentbranchesofgenerativegrammar;onecanviewgrammaticalframeworkssuchashead-drivenphrasestructuregrammar,lexicalfunctionalgrammarandcombinatorycategorialgrammarasbroadlyChomskyandgenerativeinorientation,butwithsignificantdifferencesinexecution.,.,36,5.4Conclusionofpresentation,InthepresentationgivenbyMissXu,sheintroducesdefinitionofsyntax,shequotestwodefinitionsfromtwoChinesescholars,whileinheropinion,SyntaxisaboutFORMATION&FORMULATION.ShetalksaboutapproachesofSyntax:Traditionalapproach,Structuralapproach,Generativeapproach.ThensheintroducesSyntaxrelation:positionalrelation,relationofsubstitutability,relationofco-occurrence.Inthenextpart,lexicalgrammaticalcategoriesareentailed.TheformerincludesNoun,Verb,Adjective,etc.Thelatterincludesnumber,gender,tense,mood,etc.AndsheintroducesSyntacticfunctions,namely,subject,predicate,object,complement,adverbial.Inthepartof“Phraseclausesentence”,arelationisillustrated:wordphraseclausesentence.Somerulesareentailed,likePhrasestucturerule,theXPrule,theXbartheory.ThenweknowaboutthedefinitonofICanalysis,namely,dividingthesentenceupintoimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituents.Theanalysiscanbecarriedoutinwaysofbinarycutting,bracketing,uprightlines,treediagrams.Accordingtoher,Endocentricconstructionmeans”agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole,thatis,thereisnodefinable“Centre”or“Head”insidethegroup”.ButExocentricconstructionmeans“agroupofsyntacticallyrelatedwordswherenoneofthewordsisfunctionallyequivalenttothegroupasawhole”.AtlastweknowthatEndocentricconstructionsfallintotwomaintypes,dependingontherelationbetweenconstituents:Coordinationandsubordination.Coordinationmeans:groupingtogethertwoormorecategoriesofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,butandor.Subordinationmeans:theprocessorresultoflinkinglinguisticunitssothattheyhavedifferentsyntacticstatus,onebeingdependentupontheother,andusuallyaconstituentoftheother