pragmatics(2)语用学资料讲解.ppt

pragmatics,-languageinuse,topics,Cooperativeprinciple(CP)Neo-GriceantheoriesPost-Griceandevelopments,Cooperativeprinciple(CP),CPViolationofthemaximsSummaryofconversationalimplicature,CP,OxfordPhilosopherandlogicianHerbertPaulGrice,inthefifties1967,WilliamJames,lecturesatHarvard1975,logicandconversationHeattempttoexplainthecourseofnaturalconversation,inwhichimplicatedmessagesarefrequentlyinvolved.,Indailyconversationspeopledonotusuallysaythingsbuttendtoimplythem.Theword“implicature”isusedtorefertotheextrameaningthatisnotexplicitlyexpressedintheutterance.Inmakingaconversation,theparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate;otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.Thisgeneralprincipleiscalledthecooperativeprinciple:“makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.”,Therearefourmaximsunderthisgeneralprinciple:themaximofquantity,quality,relationandmanner.WhileconversationparticipantsnearlyalwaysobservetheCP,buttheydonotalwaysobservethesemaxims.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons,butwhentheyare“flouted”,touseGricesterm,does“conversationalimplicature”occur.Floutingamaximmeansviolatingitblatantly,i.e.,boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation.Whenaspeakerfloutsamaxim,hislanguagebecomesindirect.,FourmaximsofCP,MaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.MaximofQuality:Trytomakeyourcontributiononethattrue:Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaysomethingifyoulackadequateevidence,FourmaximsofCP,MaximofRelation:MakeyourcontributionrelevantMaximofManner:Beperspicuous,andspecifically.-Avoidobscurityofexpression-Avoidambiguity-Bebrief-Beorderly,CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.Peopletendtobecooperativeandsaythingswhicharetrue,relevant,aswellasinformativeenough,andinaclearmanner.buttheimperativesintheCParedescriptiveratherthanprescriptive.,Violationofthemaxims,However,CP,likeunwrittenlaws,isregulativeandcanbeviolated.Exceptlying,peoplefloutamaximtoobserveitinafurtherdegree.ConversationalimplicaturecanonlybeinducedinaccordancetoCP.Liesarenotimplicaturesproper.,ViolationoftheQuantitymaxim,Dearsir,Mr.XscommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Your,XXA:WhereisX?B:Hesgonetothelibrary.Hesaidsowhenheleft.,ViolationoftheQualitymaxim,Heismadeofiron.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Sheisprobablydeceivinghimthisevening.,Violationoftherelationmaxim,A:Xisanoldbag.B:Theweatherhasbeenquitedelightfulthisautumn,hasntit?,Violationofthemannermaxim,A:Letsgetthekidssomething.B:Okay,butIvetoI-C-EC-R-E-A-M-S.Isoughttotellmylove,lovethatnevertoldcanbe.MissXproducesaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondcloselywiththescoreof“Home,SweetHome”.Theyhadababyandgotmarried.,Characteristicsofimplicature,Cancellability/DefeasibilityOneelementchanges,theimplicationwillalsochange.Non-detachabilityconversationalimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform.CalculabilitySpeakerstrytoconveyconversationalimplicaturesandhearerareabletounderstandthem.Non-conventionalityafterknowingthemeaningofthewords,onecangettheimplicaturesinthecontext.Indeterminacyawordwhichhasasinglemeaninghasdifferentimplicaturesindifferentsituations.,Cancellability/Defeasibility,e.g.Johnhasthreecows.Implicaturescanbecancelled:Plus“ifclause”Insomecontext,Non-detachability,Johnisagenius(amentalprodigy;anenormousintellect;abigbrain;anexceptionallycleverhumanbeing).Johnisanidiot.Dependsonthecontentofsemanticsnottheformoflanguage.,Calculability,AccordingtotheCP,Non-conventionality,Thetrue-falsequestionofthesentencecannotinfluenceitsimplicature.Anditistruetotheotherwise.Implicaturewillchangewiththecontextbutnotwiththetrue-falseofthesentence.Itiscoldhere.,Indeterminacy,Johnisamachine.A:Ireallydislikethatmanyouintroducedtome.B:Heisyournewboss.,summary,Conversationalimplicatureasatypeofimpliedmeaning,whichisdeducedonthebasisoftheconventionalmeaningofwordstogetherwiththecontext,undertheguidanceoftheCPanditsmaxims.Implicatureiscomparabletoillocutionaryforceinspeechacttheoryinthattheyarebothconcernedwiththecontextualsideofmeaning.Thedistinctionisthattheimplicatureiswithno“force”ofacts,whileillocutionaryforceis.,Neo-Griceantheories,LevinsonsQ-,I-andM-principles.GricesCPhasitsownshortages.Somelinguistsrepairandhashisowntheory.,LevinsonsQ-,I-andM-principles,StephenLevinson1987Paper:pragmaticsandthegrammarofanaphor:apartialpragmaticreductionofbindingandcontrolphenomena.,LevinsonsQ-principles,A)speakersmaximdonotprovideastatementthatisinformationallyweakerthanyourknowledgeoftheworldallows,unlessprovidingastrongerstatementwouldcontravenetheI-principle;B)recipientscorollarybelievethatthespeakermadethestrongeststatementconsistentwithwhatheknows.,【Allsome】Allofthemarestudents.Someofthemarestudents.,LevinsonsI-principles,A)speakersmaximthemaximofminimization,i.e.sayaslittleasnecessary,orproducetheminimallinguisticinformationsufficienttoachieveyourcommunicationalends;B)recipientscorollaryamplifytheinformationalcontentofthespeakersutterance,byfindingthemostSPECIFICinterpretationuptothespeakersintendedpoint.,Johnandhiswifeboughtanewcar.-Theyboughtonlyonecar,notoneeach.Johnsaidsomethingtothenurse.-Johnsaidsomethingtoafemalenurse.,LevinsonsM-principles,A)speakersmaximdonotuseaprolix,obscureormarkedexpressionwithoutreasonB)recipientscorollaryifthespeakerusedaprolixormarkedexpressionM,hedidnotmeanthesameashewouldhavehadusedtheunmarkedexpressionU-specificallyhewastryingtoavoidthestereotypicalassociationsandI-implicaturesofU.,Johnopenedthedoor.Johncausedthedoortoopen.,Post-Griceandevelopments,RelevancetheoryDanSperberandDeirdreWilson1986Relevance:CommunicationandCognition,AllGriceanmaxims,includingtheCPitself,shouldbereducedtoasingleprincipleofrelevance,“everyactofostensivecommunicationcommunicatesthepresumptionofitsownoptimalrelevance.”,discussion,Whichmaxim(s)doesspeakerBseemtoviolate?Andwhatimplicaturecanariseoutofthisanswer?A:Whatsthepriceofyourshirt?B:Thepatternisnice.2)A:Isheagoodteacher?B:Heisaveryhandsomebachelor.3)A:Letsdineoutwiththekidsthisweekend.B:Okey,butnotM-C-D-O-N-A-L-D-S.,4、-Whatwillyoudoifyoufailtheexam?-Iwilleatmyhat.5、-DoyouknowwhenJohnleftthepublastnight?-Elevenoclock.AndhewenttoMarysapartmentinsteadofhisown.6、-Didyouenjoytheplay?-Well,Ithoughttheice