Talmy认知语义学(沈家煊)

L. Talmy 2000 Toward a Cognitive Semantics, 2 vols, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.第一卷 Concept Structuring Systems 概念结构系统第一部分 语言中概念结构的基础第一章 语法与认知的关系一句话在听者头脑中引发一个“认知表征”（cognitive representation），即CR，语言的两个分系统语法和词汇分别界定CR中的不同部分：语法界定结构（structure），词汇界定内容（content）。语法成分界定的各种概念是一个极其有限的集合，是一个成分有限的系统，但它们构成的是语言的“基本概念结构系统”（Fundamental conceptual structuring system），即为语言这一认知系统提供一些有高度选择性的概念结构“图式”或“框架”（Schematic framework）。语法因此决定语言这一认知系统的概念结构。语言这一认知系统的概念结构与其他认知系统（如视觉、推理）的概念系统有对应关系，这种对应关系也是我们要研究的对象。语法与词汇的定义与意义无关，是按形式标准定义 开放类（词汇）：实词和复合词组 封闭类（语法）：显性的和具体的，包括黏着的（-ed）和自由的（even）；隐性的和抽象的，包括“名、动、主、宾、词序、构式”。由语法界定的概念语法概念的性质（区别于词汇概念）1 语义上受限制范畴有限：有数范畴，没有色范畴。范畴的成分有限：有单数、复数、双数、少量数，没有奇数偶数，dozen数，没有no, some, many, most, all等自由形式表达的数范畴。2 语法成分的所指具有指称的拓扑性（topological reference），非欧几里德性。拓扑性：图式保持不变 （橡皮泥变形后画在上面的几何图形保持不变）This speck is smaller than that speck.This planet is smaller than that planet.This和 that，比较句表达的大小远近关系，都与对象的绝对大小和距离的远近无关。图式： 。 。 The ant crawled across my palm. The bus drove across the country.across界定的概念图式： I swam across the lake. 与lake的大小形状无关（shape neutral, magnitude neutral） 一张纸团成一团后仍然叫它“一张纸”，这是量词的拓扑性。大部分语法成分所指的概念具有拓扑性或准拓扑性：点、线、在处、在里、域、边、分割、单数、复数、同、异、邻接、对应、分布方式少量的语法成分不具有拓扑性：材料、空间、时间、运动、介质、当前说及的实体语言形式的拓扑学与数学的拓扑学有同有异：同 in the thimble/volcano (大小neutral) in the well/trench (形状neutral)异 语言的in更抽象： closure neutral: in the bowl/ball discontinuity neutral: in the birdcage/ball 更具体：across 不能用于长和宽比例不对，分割的两部分大小严重不对称。 That that this this 说话人这个与那个之间的距离跟两个事物与说话人之间的距离不成比例，这种情形下只能说The closer glass is water and the further glass is wine,不能说This glass is water and that glass is wine. 过去时标记可以指一分钟前，也可以指一万年前。 实词的所指也可以具有拓扑性（previous表示过去），但是虚词的所指一定具有拓扑性。虚词只有concept-structuring 的功能，实词除这个功能外还有content fill-in的功能。 Bulk neutral: The caterpillar crawled up along the filament/the flagpole/the redwood tree. Token neutral: 指型不指例。有专用名词，但没有专用介词，如 *Jesus walked Astation the hill named Calvary.（介词Astation指专门的路径） （动词和形容词也是token neutral） substance neutral: a bubble passed through the water/milk/mercury.当发生语义矛盾时，实词向虚词让步，而不是相反。（概念框架不轻易变动） She is somewhat pregnant. 语义冲突：虚词somewhat表程度，实词pregnant不表程度。解决冲突的办法是实词让步，由无程度的“怀孕”义转向有程度义的“妊娠期”。实词的这种变化叫“（语义）应变”（shift）。3 总藏量有限，具有普世性。可能是天生的，可能是从其他认知系统复制（copy）过来的。普世性有程度之别。 语法范畴系统语法范畴又叫图式范畴（schematic categories），它们构成一些图式系统（Schematic systems）。大致有五种图式系统有待说明：1 Configuratioanal structure 时空型式2 Perspective 视角3 Distribution of attention 注意力的分布4 Force dynamics 动力作用5 Cognitive state 认知状态图式范畴和图式系统的的一些基本组织原则：1 域与域之间的对应和投射（如空间域与时间域：他在厨房他在做饭）2 一个范畴内的概念A由于与实词类发生交互作用会转变为概念B（如在“域”domain这个范畴内，空间概念变为时间概念），也能使交互作用的实词的词义发生“语义应变”或调适（如somewant 使pregnant的词义做相应变化）。3 叠套（nesting）图式范畴之一：domain域（空间、时间等）空间域事物：个体 objects （离散） 集合 mass （连续）时间域行动：动作 acts （离散） 盛碗里 活动 activity （连续） 盛鱼域与状态相关：状态：静态（stablicity）空间域 动态（progression）时间域在“域”这个范畴内，由空间转变为时间，这种认知操作（cognitive operation）叫reification或reconceptualization“概念转化”。如由一个动作转化为一个个体（两者都是有界/离散的）：John called me. John gave me a call.She bathed the child. She gave the child a bath.The child was bathed by her. The child got a bath from her.The child bathed (himself). The child had/took a bath.洗澡，洗个澡，来个热水澡由一个活动转化为一个集合（两者都是无界/连续的）：John helped me. John gave me some help.I was helped by John. I got some help from John. 帮助，给一些帮助，得到一些帮助由事物转化为行动：Hail(stones) came in through the window. It hailed in through the window 天雨Ice is forming over the windshield. It is icing up over the windshield. 冰一冰I removed the pit from the cherry. I pitted the cherry. 坑人He has blood coming from his nose. He is bleeding from his nose. 流水/水流She ejected spit into the cuspidor. She spat into the cuspidor.Crowds of people went to the fair. People thronged to the fair.从类型学上看，有的语言是事物为主的语言（object-dominant），有的语言是行动为主的语言（action-dominant）。英语属于前者，名词变动词困难，动词变名词容易。北加州Atsugewi语言属于后者，与动作相关的事物概念都由动词的前缀后缀来表达，有许多基本名词是由动词名化而来的，如名词cnehwu“太阳/月亮”是动词词根-hwu-“在天空中划出一道弧”名化而来。（前一类语言多，后一类语言少。动变名、名变动认知上的不对称。）除了空间和时间两个域，还有其他域，如认同域（identificational space）或心理空间域，区分与说话人的心理距离的远近： 一个买有机食品的顾客来到新社区后向邻里打听：Where can you buy organic food around here?Where do they sell organic food around here?you/they 泛指人，与说话人认同用you，不认同用they一个卖有机食品的商人向同行打听：Where can you sell organic food around here?Where do they buy organic food around here?This/that区分物理空间的远近，you/they区分心理空间的远近。时空型式 Configurational Structure，图式系统之一这个图式系统包括7个图式范畴1 单复数 Plexity 事物 动作单数 A bird flew in. He sighed (once). 叹了一口气复数 Birds flew in. He kept sighing. 连连叹气复数化的结果是无界化：事物由有界变为无界，动作也由有界变为无界。变为有界复数的一定是有标记形式：a flock of birds, a grove of trees, a pate of sighs有的词项有内在的复数性，如furniture, timber, breathe，它们的单数化也是有标记的：furniturea piece of furnitureshe breathed with full concentrationshe took a breath/breathed in with full concentration.(breathe in “吸入”有界)2 有无界 State of boundedness 事物 动作 无界 *we flew over water in one hour. *We slept in eight hours. 有界 we flew over a sea in one hour. She dressed in eight hours. 有界化：watera body of water sleep sleep for an hour 无界化：shrubshrubbery panelpaneling a teartears catthere is cat all over the driveway. milethere are miles of pencil in that stationary store.动作有界，受动作支配的事物相应地也按有界理解；动作无界，受动作支配的事物相应地也按无界理解。I ate popcorn for 10 minutes.动作eat popcorn无界，事物popcorn也理解为无界；I walked through the tunnel in 10 minutes.动作walked through the tunnel 有界，事物the tunnel也理解为有界。I walked along the shore for 10 minutes.动作walked along the shore 和事物the shore都为无界。界限重合原则Boundary Coincidence I walked along the shore for 10 minutes. I walked through the tunnel for 10minutes.3 内部的连续和离散 State of Dividednesswater 和sleep内部连续timber 和breathe内部离散（尽管外部看是无界的）离散化：waterparticles of water filled the vessel.连续化：leavesa mass of leaveswalk 内部连续性强 keep stepping 内部离散性强强弱是一个斜坡：离散性由强到弱This tree and that tree and that tree are mature.Those tress are mature.That timber is mature.The shaman stepped once, stepped again, and stepped once more across the coals.The shaman continued stepping across the coals.The shaman walked across the coals.有无界的对立比离散连续的对立重要，语法形式主要体现有无界的对立。上述四域domain, plexity, boundedness, dividedness都与“量”有关，统称“量性”（quantitys disposition）小结：图（59页）复数 离散 连续 无界 timber/breathe water/sleep 有界 family/to molt sea/to empty (the bird molted.) (the tank emptied.)单数 tree/to sigh4. 维度degree of extension 点：斑点 段（有界）：梯子 线（无界）：河流 she climbed up the fire ladder in five minutes. (段) moving along on the training course, she climbed the fire ladder at exactly midday.(点) she kept climbing higher and higher up the fire ladder.(线) 近看为段，远看为点，特近看为线。这是“远视/近视”distal perspective作用的结果，好比拍照是推远和拉近镜头的效果。 The cows all died in a month. （段）死光 When the cows all died, we sold our farm. （点）一死就埋葬 The cows kept dying (and dying) until they were all gone. （线）死呀死，全死光了。点和面： 点：the box is 20 feet away from the wall. I read the book 20 years ago. 读过 面：the box is 2 feet across. 宽二尺 I read the book in 2 hours. 读完英语on the campus（面），汉语 在校园里（域）在火车上（面），在车厢里（体）英国人将校园看作“面”（无界），中国人将校园看作“域”（有界）。5. 分布方式pattern of distribution事物在空间的分布方式动作在时间轴上的分布方式示图（63页）：状态1状态2单向不可复原：die, kill单向可复原：fall, drop一个来回（必复原）：flash, hit多个来回： breathe, beat稳定状态：sleep, carry状态渐变：widen例子： he fell three times. *he died three times. He fell and then got up. *the beacon flashed and then went off. The river progressively widened *she progressively slept.awake状态asleep状态：单向（不复原）：Go to sleep 睡着了一个来回：go back to sleep 醒了又睡着了一个来回半：go to sleep again 睡着了醒了又睡着了二个来回：go back to sleep again 醒了又睡着，又醒了又睡着 he died as we looked on. 点，单向不可复原 he was (slowly) dying as she looked on. 线，渐变 be +-ing这一语法成分使实词die的词义让步和“应变”6. 单向轴性 axialitywell/sick 加程度副词slightly和almost时，其表现与空间词语 at the border/past the border一样呈不对称：（状态变化也是空间位移）He is slightly sick / past the border. 有点儿不舒服/过界了*He is slightly well / at the border. *有点儿舒服/到界了He is almost well / at the border. 差不多快好了/到界了？He is almost sick / past the border ?差不多快病了/过界了加in five days后意思也不样：He got well / to the border in five days.五天恢复/到达边界He got sick / past the border in five days. 五天后病倒/过边界 一头有界一头无界的单向轴 is slightly sick / pass the border is almost well / at the border got well / to the border in five days got sick / past the border at dawn (after 5 days)“反例”：(after exposure to virus, he felt worse and worse and ) he was almost sick at one point / he finally got sick in three days. 这又是实词sick的词义让步和“应变”，上面的图式中，well和at the border是轴点（目标点），sick 和past the border是轴线，这是无标记情形，在有标记的情形sick变为目标点。7. 场景分割partitioning英语serve 表示的场景由四个部分组成：服务动作，服务主体，服务对象，服务内容the host served me some dessert from the kitchen. （主体和对象同现）I served myself some dessert from the kitchen. (主体和对象合一)I went and got some dessert from the kitchen.（只出现主体）由双体变单体，这叫“内注”（introjection） （二价动词serve，当主体和对象合一时相当一个一价动词）one twin sang. 双胞胎的一个唱both twins sang together. 双胞胎两个一起唱the twins duelted. 双胞胎二重唱由单体变双体，这叫“外射”（extrajection） （一价动词变为二价动词）视角图式系统之二1 观察（者）的位置 perspective location房内：The lunchroom door slowly opened and two men walked in. 走进来，施事（开门者）未出现，看不见房外：Two men slowly opened the lunchroom door and walked in. 走进去，施事（开门者）出现，看得见英语规则：如果施事看得见，必须在句中出现。 如果施事看不见，不能在句中出现。汉语同时用“来”“去”区分观察者位置。2 观察距离（镜头拉远推近） perspective distance远距离：ladder 为点中距离：ladder 为段近距离：ladder 为线 （视域变窄，对象实体相对变大，其内部结构变细）3 观察方式远距离静态整体扫描，视线静止：There are some houses in the valley.近距离动态逐个扫描，视线移动：There is a house every now and then through the valley. All the soldiers in the circle differed greatly from each other. Each soldier around the circle differed greatly from the last/next. The wells depth form a gradient that correlates with their locations on the road (不常用) The wells get deeper the further down the road they are.(常用) I took an aspirin time after time during the last hour.(过去时) I have taken a number of aspirins in the last hour.（完成体）4 观察方向和角度（注意焦点）顺序扫描1） 直视前视 （直视为主句，前后视为从句）I shopped at the store before I went home. 观察点-前 A采购 B回家 后汉语：我回家前采购。2） 后视直视After I shopped at the store, I went home. 观察点 - A采购 B回家汉语：我采购后回家。（同英语）3） 直视A直视BI shopped at the store, and then I went home. 观察点 观察点-A采购 B回家汉语：我先采购，然后回家。（同英语）逆序扫描4） 前视直视Before I went home, I shopped at the store. 观察点- A采购 B回家汉语：回家前我采购。（同英语）5） 直视后视 I went home after I shopped at the store. 观察点 - A采购 B回家 汉语：我采购后回家。6） 直视B直视AI went home, but first I shopped at the store. 观察点 观察点- A采购 B回家汉语：我回家，但先采购。（同英语）说明：- 代表时间方向 和 代表扫描顺序（先说后说） 代表直视（主句，Figure） 代表前视后视（从句，Ground）汉语总是由Ground（从句，前后视）到Figure（主句，直视）This festival dates from 1630. 从1630年起一直延续到现在 This festival dates back to 1630. 从现在一直追溯到1630年英语用介词区分扫描方向，汉语用动词和词序区分扫描方向。注意力的分布（distribution of attention）：图式系统之三1 注意强度（strength of attention）：凸显Figure / Ground2 注意方式（pattern of attention）聚焦部分（focus of attention）：中央和边缘 The clerk sold the vase to the customer. 聚焦于clerk The customer bought the vase from the clerk. 聚焦于customer开视窗截取方式（window of attention）：截取不同的部分分层方式（levels of attention）：注意不同的层次 1）离析/整合层次： the cluster of trees is small. 树丛很小 凸显整合层次the cluser the trees in the cluster are small. 那丛树很小 凸显离析层次the trees（中心名词为Figure） The bricks in the pyramid came crashing together /*in upon themselves. The pyramid of bricks came crashing in upon itself /*together. 那堆砖一起倒了。 *那砖堆一起倒了。 four cooks 四个炊事员 a foursome of cooks 一个炊事员四人组 The two halves of the iceberg broke apart (*in two). The iceberg broke in two. 2）统说/分举（level of exemplarity） Oysters have siphons. 统说 人人有自己的特点。 An oyster has siphons.分举 各人有各人的特点。 All oysters have siphons.全部 Every oyster has siphons. 每个 All the members raised their hands. Each member raised their hands. Many members raised their hands. Many a member raised his hands. Some members here and there raised their hands. A member here and there raised his hands. Members one after another raised their hands. One member after another raised his hands. Hardly any members raised their hands. Hardly a member raised his hands. No members raised their hands. No member (Not a member) raised his hands. On both sides of the room stood a table. 两边都有一张桌子。 On either side of the room stood a table. 每边（都）有一张桌子。 3）整体/部分（level of baseline within a hierarchy） There are freckles on the boys face. boy The boys face has freckles on it. face The boy has freckles on his face. freckles 4）具体/一般 （level of particularity） You have made a mistake here. 你把这个字改错了。 Someone has made a mistake here. 谁把这个字改错了。 有一条一般语言认知原则：未明确指出是X，就留出了有其他所指的可能性（认知空间），从而否定所指是X。（足量准则）3 注意的投射（mapping of attention）：将一种注意方式从一种场景投射到另一种场景叠套（nesting）：图式系统之三1 时空型式的叠套时间域a. The beacon flashed (as I glanced over). 一点（一个来回）b. The beacon kept flashing. 无界复数点（多个来回）c. The beacon flashed five times in a row. 有界复数点（多个来回）d. The beacon kept flashing five times at a stretch. 有界复数点变为一个大点（无界复数）e. The beacon flashed five times at a stretch for three hours. 有界复数大点a. ! 灯塔闪了一下b. ! 灯塔不断地闪c. ! 灯塔一连闪了五下d. !-! 灯塔不断地闪，一次闪五下e. !-!-! 灯塔一次闪五下闪了三个小时空间域a. I saw a duck.b. I saw ducks.c. I saw a group of five ducks.d. I saw groups of five ducks each .e. I saw three ponds full of groups of five ducks each. 叠套可视为一个动态的过程，也可视为静态的层次。2 视角的叠套At the punchbowl, John was about to meet his first wife-to-be.在那次聚会上，约翰将见到他的第一个未婚妻。 视点E视点A-|-|-|-|-|- A B C D EA 聚会时间B 约翰见到她的时间C 她嫁给约翰的时间D 约翰娶第二个妻子的时间E 说这句话的时间以A为出发点确定B（be about to），再确定C（wife-to-be），再确定D（first），最后以E为出发点观看前面整个过程（was）。3. 注意的叠套a. The customer bought a vase.b. The customer was sold a vase.两句都是凸显买主，但是a卖方完全隐退为Ground， b卖方仍是次焦点（secondary focus）。 a的聚焦范围小，b的聚焦范围大。b先通过sold一词聚焦于卖方，再通过passive聚焦于买主。后者叠套前者。（沈：这也说明passive这一语法成分比词汇sold重要）4 注意的投射（mapping of attention）：将一种注意方式从一个场景投射到另一个场景语言认知结构与其他认知结构的平行关系 语言系统具有将一些概念连贯起来的功能（conceptual coherence），语法结构的功能就是将见到的场景里的各个项目连贯起来，构成Gestalt构式。视觉系统也具有将一些概念连贯起来的功能，例如在饭店里从一头看到另一头，看到的是一个结构完形，包括房间的构架、桌椅的分布、人的分布等。这是空间域的连贯。还有时间域的连贯：语言的语篇结构起承转合构成一个整体。在饭店里也一样，要从一头走到另一头，先走哪儿，后走哪儿，哪儿拐弯，哪儿避让，都构成一个完形过程。如果不是这样，就只能慢慢地摸索前进。 语言中的有界/无界与视觉的有界/无界有平行关系。 语言中的叠套与视觉场景的叠套有平行关系。第二部分 时空型式（时空图式）详说 第二章 语言和感知中的虚拟运动 Cognitive assessment“认知估价”：实在的（factive） 虚拟的（fictive） 实在的虚拟的 这种投射（mapping）比隐喻更一般。 虚拟的运动比虚拟的静止状态更常见，这是因为人的认知有偏向动态的倾向。 语言：字面表达是fictive，客观世界在人脑中的反映是factive 感知（ception）：觉到（sense）的是fictive，见到（see）的是factive (如Gestalt的光点移动实验：实际是两个光点交替闪烁，感知到的却是一个光点在来回移动)语言中的虚拟运动（主要讲放射运动emanation）第一类放射路径叫“方向路径”（orientation paths） she crossed in front of me / the TV. She crossed ?behind / *beside me/the TV. 方向路径 she 放射面 TV TV1） 面向路径（prospect paths）The cliff wall faces toward / away from the valley. Figure Ground The valley 面向路径 Cliff wall有放射面的物体是F， 放射路径针对一个目标G。2） 对准路径（alignment paths）The snake is lying toward / away from the light. 放射面是一个点对准G，路径与线形放射体成一直线。3） 指引路径（demonstrative paths）I / The arrow on the signpost pointed toward / away the town. town eye指引人的注意力（视线）朝某一路径走。4） 定向路径（targeting paths）I pointed / aimed (my gun / camera) into / away from the living-room.有一施事有意识地确定一个目标和路径。5） 调向路径（lateral line of sight）I slowly turned my camera toward the door.I quickly looked down into the well. doorcamera第二类放射路径叫“辐射路径”（radiation paths） The sun / the light is shining into/onto the back wall of the cave. *The light is shining from my hand onto the sun. 虽然物理上有光子运动，但是人看不见，所以还是虚拟运动。太阳是放射源，是Figure,不会反过来。第三类放射路径叫“投影路径”（shadow paths） The tree threw its shadow down into the valley. The pillars shadow fell into / against the wall. 影子投射，连光子也没有。第四类放射路径叫“遥感路径”（sensory paths） The enemy can see us from where theyre positioned. （感知者为放射源） ?The enemy can see us from where were standing. （刺激物为放射源） We can be seen by the enemy from where theyre positioned. We can be seen by the enemy from where were positioned. 感知者放射出一个探测束，刺激物放射出一个刺激束，两种理解皆可。 变为被动句后刺激物也能充当放射源。为什么？（汉语不行） I can hear / smell him all the way from where Im standing. I can hear / smell him all the way from where hes standing. 我能从我这儿/他那儿听到/闻到他的声音/气味。主语（Figure）为第一人称时，刺激物也能充当放射源。 Even a casual passerby can see