the study of fossilization and method to solve 语言石化现象研究及解决办法.doc

THESTUDYOFFOSSILIZATIONANDMETHODTOSOLVE语言石化现象研究及解决办法CONTENTS1INTRODUCTION12THEDEFINITIONOFFOSSILIZATION221WHATISFOSSILIZATION222THECLASSIFICATIONOFFOSSILIZATION423THESTABILIZATIONANDFOSSILIZATION524ISFOSSILIZATIONGLOBALORLOCAL63BEHAVIORALREFLEXESANDCAUSALVARIABLES1131LACKOFACCESSTOUNIVERSALGRAMMAR1132QUALITYOFINPUT1133LACKOFSENSITIVITYTOINPUT1234ABSENCEOFCORRECTIVEFEEDBACK1235THEEMOTIONALSTATE1336CRITICALPERIODHYPOTHESIS14361CRITICALPERIODEFFECTSONLANGUAGELEARNING154SECONDLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONANDFOSSILIZATION1641HOWDOSEINSTRUCTIONAIDACQUISITION1642HOWDOSEINSTRUCTIONPROMOTEFOSSILIZATION175SUMMARYANDCONCLUSION17WORKSCITED18THESTUDYOFFOSSILIZATIONANDMETHODTOSOLVE摘要语言石化现象已经成为二语学习者进一步提高语言能力的巨大问题，而对于中国学生来说更是如此，外语学习到一定程度后，就总是处于一种似乎停滞不前的状态，至少看不到明显的进步，自己的外语听起来永远是外语，无法像本族语者那样运用自如，甚至有的学习者达到高级学习阶段时，整体外语水平与能力反不如从前。作者也遇到了这个问题，认为许多学生和老师也会遇到这样的问题，因此作者在这篇论文中探讨了语言石化。鉴于国内外大量的研究，语言石化有很多不同的定义和阐释，根据以前的研究，语言石化可以分为不同的类别。那就是语音石化，词素石化，句法石化，语篇石化，语义和语用石化。根据石化的程度可以分为暂时性石化和永久性石化。如何区分暂时性石化和永久性石化，引起石化的原因是什么，在语言教学和学习过程中如何避免石化，这是写这篇论文的目的。因为作者的能力有限，解决石化的方法很多是引用前人的研究，将来还需要很多进一步的实证研究。关键词语言石化；石化分类；石化原因；解决办法ABSTRACTITSUNIVERSALLYACKNOWLEDGEDTHATLANGUAGEFOSSILIZATIONHASBECOMEABIGPROBLEMFORL2LEARNERSTOBEVERYSUCCESSFULINTHEIRLANGUAGELEARNINGORACQUISITIONITISVERYEASYTODISTINGUISHL2LEARNERFROMNATIVESPEAKERBYTHEIRACCENT,WORDCHOICEANDGRAMMATICALFEATURESDESPITEOFTHEIRCONTINUOUSEXPOSURETOLANGUAGEINPUTANDCONSISTENTEFFORTS,THEYBECOMECAUGHTUPSOMEWHEREINTHELEARNINGPROCESSANDFINDTHEMSELVESUNABLETOPROGESSTOWARDTHETARGETLANGUAGETLEVENSOMEADVANCEDLEARNERSHAVEBACKSLIDINTHEIRLANGUAGECOMPETENCETHEAUTHORALSOMEETTHEPROBLEMANDTHINKTHATALOTOFSTUDENTSANDTEACHERSHAVETHEPROBLEMSOTHEAUTHORHASTRIEDTOPROBEINTOFOSSILIZATIONINTHELIGHTOFTHEEFFICIENCYINTHEPREVIOUSSTUDIESABROADANDHOMETHEREAREMANYDEFINITIONSANDADEQUATEDESCRIPTIONSABOUTFOSSILIZATIONACCORDINGTOPREVIOUSSTUDY,FOSSILIZATIONCANBEDIVIDEDINTODIFFERENTGROUPSTHATIS，PHONETIC,MORPHOLOGICAL,SYNTACTIC,DISCOURSE,SEMANTICANDPRAGMATICFURTHER,SOMEPEOPLEGENERALIZETHEMAJORCATEGORIESANDMANIFESTATIONSOFFOSSILIZATIONATDIFFERENTLEVELSFORINSTANCES,INPHONOLOGY,CHINESESTUDENTSTENDTOMAKEWRONGSTRESSANDTOSPEAKINTHE“FOREIGNACCENT“FROMTHEDEGREEOFFOSSILIZATION,THEFOSSILIZATIONCANBECLASSIFIEDINTOTEMPORARYFOSSILIZATIONANDPERMANENTFOSSILIZATIONHOWTODIVIDEDTEMPORARYFOSSILIZATIONANDPERMANENTFOSSILIZATIONWHATCAUSETHELANGUAGEFOSSILIZATIONHOWTOREDUCEFOSSILIZATIONINLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONANDLEARNINGTHISISTHEOBJECTIVEOFTHEPAPERBECAUSEOFTHEAUTHORSCOMPETENCE,THEMETHODTOSOLVEFOSSILIZATIONISREFERENCEDFROMOTHERSFURTHEREMPIRICALSTUDIESNEEDTOBECONDUCTEDINFUTUREKEYWORDSFOSSILIZATIONTYPEOFFOSSILIZATIONFOSSILIZATIONCAUSESTHEMETHODTOSOLVETHESTUDYOFFOSSILIZATIONANDMETHODTOSOLVE1INTRODUCTIONBACKGROUNDOFTHESTUDYMOSTL2LEARNERSANDLECTURERFINDTHATAFTERTHEYREACHEDACERTAINSTAGEOFDEVELOPMENT,THEYCANTACHIEVEL2PROFICIENCYFURTHERAMERICANLINGUISTIC,SELINKERNOTEDTHATMANYL2LEARNERSPERHAPSASMANYAS95PERCENTFAILTOREACHTARGETLANGUAGECOMPETENCETHEYSTOPLEARNINGWHENTHEIRINTERLANGUAGECONTAINSATLEASTSOMERULESDIFFERENTFROMTHOSEOFTARGETLANGUAGESYSTEMANIMPORTANTCHARACTERISTICTHATCANBEOBSERVEDINTHESTUDYOFTHEINTERLANGUAGE,SECONDANDFOREIGNLANGUAGELEARNERSISTHATSOMELANGUAGEFEATURESAREDIFFERFROMTHECORRECTORMOREADEQUATETARGETLANGUAGEFORMWHILEDONOTSEEMTOFOLLOWANYKINDOFPROFICIENCYINTHETARGETLANGUAGEBUTQUITETHEOPPOSITETHESEINTERLANGUAGEFORMSSEEMTOBEUSEDBYLANGUAGELEARNERSINSPITEOFTHEIRTHEORETICALCAPACITYBOTHLINGUSTICANDINTELLECTUALTOINCLUDETHERIGHTTARGETLANGUAGEFORMINTHEIRINTERLANGUAGEREPERTOIRETHISPHENOMENONOFCERTAINLINGUSTICFEATURESBECOMINGFIXEDINSOMEORMOSTLEARNERSINTERLANGUAGEHASBEENREFERREDINLITERATURE,AFTERSELINKERASFOSSILIZATIONTHEPHENOMENONMENTIONEDABOVELEADSUSTOCONSIDERWHYMAJORITYOFL2LEARNERSADVANCEDLEARNERSINCLUDEDSTOPPROGRESSINGINTHEIRACQUISITIONOFTARGETLANGUAGEANDWHYSOMEKINDSOFERRORSTENDTOPERSISTINTHEIRINTERLANGUAGEANDWHATARETHETRACESOFTHEIRFOSSILIZATIONPROGRESSINGTHEPHENOMENONALSOEXISTAMONGLANGUAGETEACHERSINCOLLEGESTHOUGHTHEYARECONSIDEREDADVANCEDENGLISHLEARNERSANDTHEACHERSASWEALLKNOWCHILDRENSLEARNTHEIRMOTHERTONGUEQUICKLYANDPROFICIENCYCHOMSKYCONTRIBUTESITTOLADDOESTHEFOSSILIZATIONOCCURAMONGL2LEARNERSBECAUSEOFLACKINGLADOROTHERSREASONSBECAUSETHISISSUEISSTILLBEINGSTUDIED,MANYTHEORIESSTILLHAVEARGUEMENTSANDMANYASPECTSARENOTCLEAR,THEWRITERJUSTQUOTESTHEEXPERTSSTUDYTRYINGTOFINDTHEMETHODTOSOLVEFOSSILIZATION2THEDEFINITIONOFFOSSILIZATIONFORMORETHANTHREEDECADESNOW,THECONSTRUCTOFFOSSILIZATIONHASBEENSUBJECTEDTOTHEORETICALANDEMPIRICALQUERIESUNDERARANGEOFDIFFERENTTERMS,NOTONLYUNDERITSBYNOWTRADITIONALNAMEOF“FOSSILIZATION“SELINKER,1972PASSIMTHESLALITERATURE,BUTALSOAS“VIRTUALHALT“EG,LOWTHER,1983PERDUE,1984,“LINGUSTROSITIES“HAMMERLY,1983,“PLATEAU“EGFLYNN41ANDNEMSERABOUT“PERMANENTINTERMEDIATESYSTEMSANDSUBSYSTEMS“P174BOTHRESEARCHERSNOTONLYRECOGNIZEDTHEPHENOMENONBUTALSOINTERGATEDITINTOTHEIRTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVESFORANACCESSIBLEDISCUSSIONOFTHEEARLIESTTHOUGHTSONFOSSILIZATION,SEESELINKER,1992THETERM“FOSSILIZATION“WASINTRODUCEDTOTHEFIELDOFSLABYSELINKERIN1972ONTHEBASICOFHISOBSERVATIONTHATVASTMAJORITYOFSECONDLANGUAGELEARNERSFAILTOACHIEVENATIVESPEAKERCOMPETENCEFOSSILIZATION,ASTHENCONCEPTUALIZED,IMPLICATEDBOTHACOGNITIVEMECHANISMKNOWASSTRUCTURALPHENOMENONASACOGNITIVEMECHANISM,ITWASTHOUGHTTOBEACONSTITUENTOFATALENTPSYCHOLOGICALSTRUCTURETHATDICTATESALEARNERSACQUISITIONOFASECONDLANGUAGEASAPERFORMANCERELATEDSTRUCTURALNOTION,ITDENOTEDSPECIFICALLY“THEREGULARREAPPARANCEINSECONDLANGUAGEPERFORMANCEOFLINGUISTICPHENOMENAWHICHWERETHOUGHTTOBEERADICATEDINTHEPERFORMANCEOFLEARNER“P211THETWOFUNCTIONSWERECONCEIVEDTOBEINTERRELATEDFOSSILIZATION,AMECHANISMUNDERLIESSURFACELINGUISTICMATERIALWHICHSPEAKERSWILLTENDTOKEEPINTHEIRILPRODUCTIVEPERFORMANCE,NOMATTERWHATTHEAGEOFTHELEARNERORTHEAMOUNTOFINSTRUCTIONHERECEIVESINTHETLSELINKER,1972229FURTHER,ASAPERFORMANCEBASEDSTRUCTURALNOTION,FOSSILIZATIONWASINDIRECTLY,RATHERTHANDIRECTLY,DEFINEDINTERMSOFPUTATIVEFOSSILIZABLESTRUCTURESFOSSILIZABLELINGUISTICPHENOMENAARELINGUISTICITEMS,RULES,ANDSUBSYSTEMSWHICHSPEAKERSOFAPARTICULARL1TENDTOKEEPINTHEIRILRELATIVETOAPARTICULARTL,NOMATTERWHATTHEAGEOFTHELEARNERORAMOUNTOFEXPLANATIONANDINSTRUCTIONHERECEIVESINTHETLSELINKER,1972215THISEARLIESTCONCEPTIONSUGGESTS,INTERALIA,SEVERALPROPERTIESOFFOSSILIZATIONFIRST,FOSSILIZABLESTRUCTURESAREPERSISTENTSECOND,THEYARERESISTANTTOEXTERNALINFLUENCESANDTHIRD,FOSSILIZATIONAFFECTSBOTHCHILDANDADULTL2LEARNERSALIKEBEHINDTHESE,ITISIMPORTANTTONOTE,ISTHEIMPLICATIONTHATL2LEARNERSLACKTHEABILITYTOATTAINNATIVELIKECOMPETENCEANDPRECISELYITISTHISVIEWTHATACCORDSTHECONSTRUCTOFFOSSILIZATIONITSINTRINSICINTERESTITISWHATHASDRAWNTHEATTENTIONOFMANYSECONDLANGUAGERESEARCHERSANDPRACTITIONERSSINCE1972,THENOTIONOFFOSSILIZATIONHASBEENAGRADUALABSTRACTIONANDANEXPANSIONINSCOPEIN1978,SELINKERANDLAMENDELLAEXPLICITLYDEFINEDITINTERMSOFAPERMANENTCESSATIONOFILLEARNINGBEFORETHELEARNERHASATTAINEDTLNORMSATALLLEVELSOFLINGUSTICSTRUCTUREANDINALLDISCOURSEDOMAINSINSPITEOFTHELEARNERSPOSITIVEABILITY,OPPORTUNITY,ANDMOTIVATIONTOLEARNANDACCULTURATEINTOTARGETSOCIETY1978187FOSSILIZATION,INTHEVIEWEXPRESSEDABOVE,ISCOTERMINOUSWITHPERMANENTCESSATIONOFLEARNING,THEREBYGOINGBEYONDTHEBACKSLIDINGOFLINGUISTICSTRUCTURESTHATWERETHOUGHTTOBEERADICATEDTHESCOPEOFFOSSILIZABLESTRUCTURESWASALSOEXTENDEDFROMLINGUISTICITEMS,RULESANDSUBSYSTEMSTOALLLEVELSOFLINGUISTICSTRUCTUREANDINALLDISCOURSEDOMAINSTHEROLEPLAYEDBYTHELEARNERSPOSITIVEABILITY,OPPORTUNITY,ANDMOTIVATIONWASMINIMIZED,THEREBYSUGGESTINGTHEINEVITABILITYOFFOSSILIZATIONANDTHUSITSINNATENESSINSELINKERANDLAKSHMANAN1992,FOSSILIZATIONISDEFINEDSTRUCTURALLYINTERMSOFPERSISTENTNONTARGETLIKESTRUCTURES,THUSINCORPORATINGLONGTERMPERSISTENCEASADEFININGFEATUREOFEMPIRICALDISCOVERINGOFFOSSILIZATIONFOSSILIZATIONINTHESENSEOFAGENERALCESSATIONOFLEARNINGWOULD,INSELINKERSVIEW,CULMINATEINULTIMATEFOSSILIZEDCOMPETENCESELINKER,1996A,BFOSSILIZATIONISTHEPROCESSWHEREBYTHELEARNERCREATESACESSATIONOFINTERLANGUAGELEARNING,THUSSTOPPINGTHEINTERLANGUAGEFROMDEVELOPING,ITISHYPOTHESIZED,INAPERMANENTWAYTHEARGUMENTISTHATNOADULTCANHOPETOSPEAKASECONDLANGUAGEINSUCHAWAYTHATS/HEISINDISTINGUISHABLEFROMNATIVESPEAKERSOFTHATLANGUAGESELINKER,1996BONTHISVIEW,THEN,THEULTIMATEATTAINMENTOFADULTL2ACQUISITIONISAFOSSILIZEDINTERLANGUAGEFOSSILIZATIONISINEVITABLEANDNOADULTL2LEARNERWOULDEVERBEABLETOPASSFORNATIVEINALLCONTEXTS,INSUM,SINCE1972,SELINKERHASBROADENEDTHEREFERENTIALSCOPEOFFOSSILIZATIONFROMBACKSLIDINGTOCESSATIONOFLEARNINGANDTOULTIMATEATTAINMENT,GRADUALLYMOVINGAWAYFROMTHE5ESTIMATETHATHEMADEINITIALLYCONCERNINGTHEHYPOTHESIZEDSUCCESSFULPOPULATIONOFSLATOTHECLAIMTHATNOADULTL2LEARNERCANHOPETOACHIEVENATIVELIKECOMPETENCEINALLDISCOURSEDOMAINSSELINKER,1996BACCOMPANYINGTHISCHANGEINCONCEPTIONISALSOANEXPANSIONOFTHELINGUISTICSCOPEOFFOSSILIZATION,FROMFOSSILIZABLESTRUCTURESIE,LOCALFOSSILIZATIONTOAFOSSILIZEDINTERLANGUAGEIE,GLOBALFOSSILIZATIONMEANWHILE,THEDUALFUNCTIONSOFFOSSILIZATION,NAMELY,ITSBEINGBOTHACOGNITIVEMECHANISMANDASTRUCTURALBEHAVIORALPHENOMENON,WHICHWEREEXPLICITINTHEEARLIESTPOSTULATION,TENDTOBELESSCLEARCUTINHISLATERDEFINITIONSSELINNKERAND2THATFOSSILIZABLESTRUCTURESAREPERSISTENTOVERTIME,AGAINSTANYENVIRONMENTALINFLUENCES,INCLUDINGCONSISTENTNATURALEXPOSURETOTHETARGETLANGUAGEANDPEDAGOGICINTERVENTIONSINADDITION,SEVERALISSUESAREIDENTIFIABLEASLYINGATTHEHEARTOFTHECONCEPTUALDIFFERENCE,ANDWEDISCUSSEDTWO1WHETHERFOSSILIZATIONSHOULDBESEENASGLOBALORLOCAL,AND2WHETHERITSHOULDBEVIEWEDASAPRODUCTORAPROCESSIHAVEARGUEDTHATFOSSILIZATIONOCCURSLOCALLYRATHERTHANGLOBALLY,ANDTHATITISANOBSERVABLEPROCESS,WITHTHEPRODUCTONLYBEINGINFERABLE22THECLASSIFICATIONOFFOSSILIZATION23THESTABILIZATIONANDFOSSILIZATION24ISFOSSILIZATIONGLOBALORLOCALSOMERESEARCHERSHAVEVIEWEDFOSSILIZATIONASOCCURINGGLOBALLYTOTHEENTIREINTERLANGUAGESYSTEM,YETOTHERSHAVEMAINTAINEDTHATFOSSILIZATIONCOULDONLYHAPPENLOCALLYINPARTSOFTHEINTERLANGUAGESYSTEMITMAYBERECALLEDTHATSELINKERHIMSELFHASSHIFTEDHISPERCEPTIONFROMLOCALTOGLOBALMIRRORINGTHISDIFFERENCE,THESLALITERATURESEESTHEUSEOFFOSSILIZEDERROR,ONTHEONEHAND,SUGGESTINGLOCALFOSSILIZATION,BUTFOSSILIZEDCOMPETENCEANDFOSSILIZEDLEARNER,ONTHEOTHERHAND,SUGGESTINGGLOBALFOSSILIZATIONBYWAYOFILLUSTRATION,TARONEETAL1976SEEALSOSELINKER,1992ARGUETHATTWOTYPESOFLEARNERSCANBEDISTINGUISHEDFOSSILIZEDLEARNERSREFERREDTOASTYPE1LEARNERSANDNONFOSSILIZEDLEARNERSREFERREDTOASTYPE2LEARNERSACCORDINGTOTHERESEARCHERS,ATYPE1LEARNERSINTERLANGUAGEISCHARACTERIZEDBYCESSATIONOFLEARNINGORSTABILITYDUETOHISORHERINABILITYTOCHANGETHEILSYSTEMINCONTRAST,ATYPE2LEARNERSINTERLANGUAGEISDYNAMICINTHATITCHANGESOVERTIME,THEREBYSUGGESTINGCONTINNUATIONOFLEARNINGAPPARENTLY,SUCHABIFURCATIONOFL2LEARNERSISCONCEPTUALLYFLAWEDFORONETHING,ITESSENTIALLYRELIESONLYONLEARNERSOUTPUTTODETERMMINEWHETHERLEARNINGISOCCURRINGORNOT,ANDINASMUCHASITIGNORESTHEUNDERLYINGCOGNITIVEPROCESSES,ITREFLECTSASIMPLISTICANDBEHAVIORISTICVIEWOFLEARNINGASOFYET,ITISCRUCIALTONOTE,EVIDENCEOFGLOBALFOSSILIZATIONREMAINSENTIRELYIMPRESSIONISTICCFVANPATTEN,1988MOREPRECISELY,GLOBALFOSSILIZATIONISASSUMEDASOPPOSEDTOESTABLISHEDRATHER,THEPREPONDERANCEOFTHEAVAILABLEEMPIRICALEVIDENCEHASBEENPOINTINGTOLOCALFOSSILIZATIONTHATIS,FOSSILIZATIONONLYHITSCERTAINLINGUISTICFEATURESINCERTAINSUBSYSTEMSOFTHEINTERLANGUAGESOFINDIVIDUALLEARNERSWHILEOTHERLINGUSTICFEATURESINTHESAMESUBSYSTEMSARESUCCESSFULLYACQUIREDORCONTINUETOEVOLVEITISWORTHMENTIONINGTHATTHEEMPIRICALRESULTSARELARGELYINLINEWITHTHEGENERALCONCEPTUALFRAMEWORKESTABLISHEDINBEFORECONTEXT3BEHAVIORALREFLEXESANDCAUSALVARIABLESWEHAVESEENTHATFOSSILIZATIONASATHEORETICALCONSTRUCTHASBEENINTERPRETEDINAVARIETYOFDIFFERENTWAYSTHELACKOFUNIFORMITYINTHEGENERALUNDERSTANDINGOFTHENOTION,ASACONSEQUENCE,HASLEDRESEARCHERS,OVERTHEYEARS,TOAPPLYTHETERMTOAWIDEARRAYOFLEARNERBEHAVIORSACCORDINGTOHANSFOSSILIZATIONINADULTSECONDLANGUAGEACQUISITION,SEVERALREASONSARETALKEDABOUTBELOWISALISTOFWHATRESEARCHERSHAVERECOGNIZEDASBEHAVIORALREFLEXESOFFOSSILIZATIONCFSELINKERHAN,2003BACKSLIDINGEG,RELLIS,1985SCHACHTER,1988SELINKER1972STABILIZEDERRORSEG,SCHUMANN,1978APRESISTENTNONTARGETLIKEPERFORMANCEEG,MUKATTASH,1986LEARNINGPLATEAUEG,FLYNNHAN,2003ABSENCEOFCORRECTIVEFEEDBACKHIGGSLIGHTBOWNRELLIS,1985LACKOFACCULTURATIONEG,PRESTON,1989LACKOFINPUTSCHUMANN,1978A,BCNANGESINTHENEURALSTRUCTUREOFTHEHUMANBRAINEG,PULVERMULLERHAN,2000LACKOFATTENTIONEG,SCHMIDT,1983LACKOFOPPORTUNITYTOUSETHETARGETLANGUAGESWAIN,1985,1995LACKOFACCESSTOUNIVERSALGRAMMAREG,HALE,1988SCHACHTER,1996ACHANGEINTHEEMOTIONALSTATEEG,PRESTON,1989SELINKER,1972QUALITYOFINPUTEG,FLEGEGASSSEEALSOSELINKER,1972,BECAUSEDBYONESEMOTIONALSTATEAPPARENTLY,THEDEGREETOWHICHEMOTIONALINVOLVEMENTDISTRACTSASPEAKERFROMATTENTIONTOFORMISREFLECTEDINBACKSLIDINGFORLANGUAGELEARNERS1989180INSUPPORTOFHISARGUMENT,PRESTONCITESSEVERALSTUDIESLANTOLFANDAHMED1989SHOWDECREASINGL2ACCURACYINANARABICLEARNERFROMINTERVIEWSTYLETOCONVERSATIONALSTYLE,INDICATINGTHATTHERESPONDENTWASEMOTIONALLYENGAGEDINTHECONVERSATIONTOPIC,WHICHHENOMINATEDHIMSELFATTHEENDOFADATAGATHERINGSESSIONEISENSTEINANDSTARBUK1989ALSOFOUNDGREATERL2INACCURACYINRESPONDENTSEMOTIONALLYINVESTEDCONVERSATIONS198918036CRITICALPERIODHYPOTHESISIN1967,LENNEBERGSLANG,APSYCHOBIOLOGIST,WHOWASINSPIREDBYFINDINGSFROMETHOLOGICALSTUDIESANDINSIGHTSFROMTHEWORKOFHISCONTEMPORARIERSEG,PENFIELD2THETERMINUS3ORGANIZATIONALPLASTICITY4THECRITICALSTIMULUSAND5THECRITICALSYSTEMFIRST,THEONSETOFTHECRITICALPERIODISGRADUALANDMAYNOTBEENTIRELYMATURATIONALLYDETERMINEDBUTMAYBEINFLUENCEDINSOMEWAYBYEXOGENOUSINPUTASWELL1982262SECOND,THETERMINUS,THEUPPERBOUNDOFTHEPERIOD,ISSETPRIMARILYBYBIOLOGY,ANDISGRADUAL,THOUGHLESSSOTHANTHEONSETTHIRD,THECRITICALPERIODISESSENTIALLYTHETIMEBETWEENTHEEMERGENCEANATOMICALLYORFUNCTIONALLYOFAGIVENBIOBEHAVIORALSYSTEMANDITSMATURATION1982263,DURINGWHICHNEUROBIOLOGICALCHANGESAFFECTTHESENSITIVITYTOSTIMULIANDPLASTICITYINDEVELOPMENTFOURTH,EVENTHOUGHTHECPPHENOMENONISMAINLYBIOLOGICALLYDRIVEN,EXTERNALSTIMULIMAYPLAYACRITICALROLETHEIREFFECTSCANBEPERMANENTONCETHESYSTEMREACHESMATURITYTHEIDEAISTHATONLYCERTAINSTIMULIORINPUTARECRITICALTOLEARNINGFINALLY,THETERMCRITICALPERIODCONCERNSSOMESPECIFICBIOBEHAVIORALSYSTEMSWHATTHISIMPLIESFORLANGUAGELEARNINGISTHATNOTEVERYASPECTOFLANGUAGEDEVELOPMENTISSUSCEPTIBLETOCPEFFECTS361CRITICALPERIODEFFECTSONLANGUAGELEARNINGOFTHENEUROLOGICALPROCESSESTHATHAVEBEENCONSIDEREDASUNDERLYINGTHECRITICALPERIOD,LATERALIZATIONAPPEARSTOHAVERECEIVEDTHEMOSTATTENTION,SINCEPROGRESSIVELATERALIZATIONOFLANGUAGEFUNCTIONSTOTHEDOMINANTLEFTHEMISPHEREISWIDELYTAKENTOBECONCOMITANTWITHTHEGRADUALLOSSOFNEURALPLASTICITYPLASTICITY,INTHEEYESOFMANY,ISSYNONYMOUSWITHSENSITIVITYANDFLEXIBILITYSCOVEL1988,FOREXAMPLE,DEFINESITASTHEOVERALLABILITYOFTHEBRAINTOPROGRAMANDPROCESSNEWPATTERNSOFBEHAVIORQUICKLYANDEFFICIENTLY,ANDTORELOCATETHISABILITYTODIFFERENTAREASOFTHEBRAINSHOULDTHEREBECONGENITALDAMAGEORINJURYINCURREDAFTERBITHHIGHSENSITIVITYTOEXTERNALSTIMULIISFURTHERCORRELATEDWITHSUCCESSEARLYLEARNERSAREASSUMEDTOPOSSESSHIGHSENSITIVITY,ANDHENCEARESUCCESSFULINLEARNINGLATELEARNERSEG,ADULTS,ONTHEOTHERHAND,HAVEALOWERSENSITIVITYBEINGLESSRESPONSIVETOENVIRONMENTALINFLUENCESSUCHASINPUTFROMTHETARGETLANGUAGEANDHENCEARELESSSUCCESSFULASEUBANKANDGREGG199090APTLYPUTIT,ONCETHEPERIODISPAST,LINGUISTICINPUTCEASESTOHAVEANINSTRUCTIONALEFFECTWITHREGARDTOTHOSEASPECTSOFLANGUAGEOFRELEVANCETONOTE,THISPROPOSITIONISCONSISTENTWITHFINDINGSFROMANUMBEROFRECENTNEUROPHYSIOLOGICALEXPERIMENTSWITHEARLYANDLATEBILINGUALSTHATARECONDUCTEDVIAEVENTRELATEDBRAINPOTENTIALSERPS,ATECHNIQUEFORMEASURINGELECTRICALACTIVITYINDIFFERENTAREASOFTHEBRAINSEE,EG,WEBERFOXSCHACHTER,1996ATHESEEFFECTS,ASSCOTT1962CITEDINCOLOMBO,1982261POINTSOUT,MAYTAKETWOFORMSTHEYMAYTRIGGERTHECOURSEOFFURTHERNORMALDEVELOPMENTORPRODUCEANIRREVOCABLERESULTNOTMODIFIABLEINSUBSEQUENTDEVELOPMENTP957THENATUREOFTHEEXPOSURETOENVIRONMENTALSTIMULIDURINGTHESENSITIVEPERIODANDITSEFFECTONSUBSEQUENTLEARNINGISELEGANTLYELABORATEDUNDERSCHACHTERS1989,1990,1996A,BINCOMPLETENESSHYPOTHESIS,WHICHPOSITSTHEREISAMATURATIONALSCHEDULEFORTHEDEVELOPMENTOFCERTAINPRINCIPLESANDCERTAINOTHERPROPERTIESOFL1FURTHERMORE,THISSCHEDULERESULTSINSENSITIVEPERIODSBEFOREWHICHANDAFTERWHICHCERTAINPRINCIPLESCANNOTBEINCORPORATEDINTOALEARNERSL1DURINGTHESENSITIVEPERIOD,THEYREMAINFOREVERUNAVAILABLEFORINCORPORATIONINTOANADULTLEARNERSDEVELOPINGL2SCHACHTER,1996A163EMPHASISINORIGINALSITUATINGHERARGUEMENTATIONWITHINAUGFRAMEWORK,SCHACHTERCONTENDSTHATENVIRONMENTALSTIMULATIONISCRUCIALNOTONLYFORPARAMETERSETTING,ASGENERALLYRECOGNIZED,BUTALSOFORTRIGGERINGCERTAINUNIVERSALPRINCIPLESFOLLOWINGHERLINEOFREASONING,IFAPRINCIPLECOMPRISESANUMBEROFRELATEDPROPERTIESANDIFTHESEPROPERTIESDONOTAPPEARINTHEINPUTWHICHALEARNEREXPERIENCESATTHEMATURATIONALLYAPPROPRIATETIME,THEPRINCIPLEWILLNOTSUBSEQUENTLYFORMPARTOFTHELEARNERSGRAMMAROFTHATLANGUAGEACASEINPOINTISSUBJACENCYSEE,HOWEVER,BIALYSTOKJUFFSIFNOT,THENCOMPLETENESSCANNOTBEINCLUDEDASAPOSSIBLECHARACTERISTICOFADULTSECONDLANGUAGEACQUISITION1990914SECONDLANGUAGEINSTRUCTIONANDFOSSILIZATIONWEHAVEESTABLISHEDTHEARGUMENTTHATMATURSTIONALCONSTRAINSANDNATIVELANGUAGEINFLUENCEARETHEMAJORDETERMINANTSOFTHEGENERALLACKOFSUCCESSINADULTL2LEARNING,BUTTHATTHEDEGREEOFSUCHLACKOFSUCCESSMAYVARYFROMINDIVIDUALTOINDIVIDUALDUETOTHEFUNCTIONINGOFOTHERVARIABLESWEWILLDELVEINTOONESUCHVARIABLE,SECONDLANGUAGEINSTRUCTION,ANDEXPLOREITSRELATIONSHIPTOFOSSILIZATIONTHEREADERMAY,UNDERSTANDABLY,QUERYWHETHERORNOTSUCHANATTEMPTMAKESANYSENSE,SINCE,INTHECONVICTIONOFMANY,ONECAPABILITYOFINSTRUCTIONISPRECISELYTHATITCANPREVENTFOSSILIZATIONRELLIS1988,FOREXAMPLE,HASADVANCEDTWOCLAIMSINFAVOROFFORMALINSTRUCTIONALEARNERSWILLFAILTOACQUIRETHEMOREDIFFERENTRULESEG,INVERSIONANDVERBENDONCETHEYHAVEACHIEVEDCOMMUNICATIVEADEQUACYLEARNERSMAYNEEDFORMFOCUSEDINSTRUCTIONTOMAKETHEMAWAREOFGRAMMATICALFEATURESTHATHAVELITTLECOMMUNICATIVEIMPORTANCEANDYETCONSTITUTETARGETLANGUAGEMORMSINOTHERWORDS,FORMALINSTRUCTIONSERVESTOPREVENTFOSSILIZATIONBNATURALISTICACQUISITIONISOFTENAVERYSLOWPROCESSINSTRUCTIONMAYNOTALTERTHEWAYINWHICHLEARNINGTAKESPLACE,BUTITMAYHELPTOSPEEDITUP19884EMPHASISADDEDBOTHCLAIMSAREINTUITIVELYAPPEALINGNEVERTHELESS,ITISIMPORTANTTOPOINTOUTTHATWHILERELLISSSECONDCLAIMHASBYFARBEENQUITEWELLSUPPORTEDBYEMPIRICALEVIDENCE,HISFIRSTASSERTIONREGARDINGINSTRUCTIONANDFOSSILIZATIONHASASYETRECEIVEDLITTLEDIRECTINVESTIGATION,THEORETICALANDEMPIRICALASSUCH,ITESSENTIALLYREMAINSASPECULATIONRATHERTHANASTATEMENTOFANOBSERVEDFACTLACKOFVALIDATIONN