浅谈欧盟技术贸易壁垒对中国出口贸易的影响 英文文献及翻译

QUANTIFYINGTHEIMPACTOFTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE1INTRODUCTION,THEIMPACTOFSTANDARDSANDTECHNICALREGULATIONSONTRADEISATTHEFOREFRONTOFPOLICYDISCUSSIONS1THISISPARTICULARLYTRUEINRELATIONTOCHALLENGESCONFRONTINGDEVELOPINGNATIONSASTHEYSEEKTOINCREASEPRODUCTIONFORGLOBALEXPORTMARKETSINREGARDTOVOLUNTARYSTANDARDS,SUCHASTHOSEINTHEINTERNATIONALORGANIZATIONFORSTANDARDIZATIONISO9000SERIESONQUALITYFOREXAMPLE,DEVELOPINGNATIONSFACECONTINUEDCONSTRAINTSINDIFFUSINGBESTPRACTICEINFORMATIONONSTANDARDSANDRESOURCESNECESSARYTOAIDINTHEADOPTIONOFAPPROPRIATEPROCESSANDPRODUCTIONMETHODSWORLDBANK2000INADDITION,ASTRADITIONALTRADEPROTECTIONMEASURESSUCHASTARIFFS,QUOTAS,ANDVOLUNTARYEXPORTRESTRAINTVERAGREEMENTSHAVEBEENELIMINATEDTHROUGHOUTTHE1990S,BARRIERSTOTRADEREFLECTEDINUSEOFDOMESTICTECHNICALREGULATIONSHAVEBECOMEMUCHMOREIMPORTANTCHANNELSTHROUGHWHICHTRADEISBLOCKED2THESUCCESSOFMULTILATERALLIBERALIZATIONTHROUGHTRADETALKSENDINGINCONCLUSIONOFTHEURUGUAYROUNDIN1994HASHIGHLIGHTEDTHEIMPORTANCEOFNONTARIFFBARRIERSINNATIONALSTANDARDSCERTAINLYNOTALLMARKETACCESSCOMMITMENTSINTHEWORLDTRADEORGANIZATIONWTOAGREEMENTSCONCLUDEDINTHE1994HAVEBEENFULLYIMPLEMENTEDORENFORCED3NORISITTHECASETHATBARRIERSTOTRADESUCHASSUBSIDIESTOAGRICULTURALPRODUCTIONORPROHIBITIONONFOREIGNINVESTMENTINSERVICES,FOREXAMPLE,HAVEBEENCOMPLETELYELIMINATEDITISCLEAR,HOWEVER,THATDOMESTICREGULATIONAFFECTINGIMPORTSTHROUGHTECHNICALREQUIREMENTS,TESTING,CERTIFICATION,ANDLABELINGREPRESENTONEOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTNEWAREASFORFOCUSINCONTINUINGLIBERALIZATIONEFFORTSMANDATORYREGULATIONSIMPOSEDBYGOVERNMENTSATTHEBORDERCANPRODUCESERIOUSDISTORTIONSINCOMMERCIALMARKETSDOMESTICREGULATORYSYSTEMSMAYRESTRAINTRADEANDLIMITMARKETENTRYTHROUGHENVIRONMENTAL,HEALTH,ORSAFETYMANDATESNOTBASEDONINTERNATIONALNORMS,FOREXAMPLETHESETYPESOFMARKETACCESSREQUIREMENTSMAYORMAYNOTBEDISCRIMINATORYWITHINTHECONTEXTOFWTODISCIPLINES,INCLUDINGCOMMITMENTSUNDERTAKENBYWTOMEMBERSINTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADE1THISPAPERFOCUSESONPRODUCTORPROCESSSTANDARDSRELATEDTOGOODSANDAGRICULTURALCOMMODITIESITDOESNOTASSESSSTANDARDSASTHEYMAYBEAPPLIEDINTHESERVICESECTORORLABORSTANDARDS2THEREAREANUMBEROFRECENTSTUDIESTHATASSESSTHECHANGINGNATUREOFBARRIERSTOTRADEINNONTARIFFAREAS,INCLUDINGTHOSEOFPARTICULARIMPORTANCETODEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESFORADISCUSSIONOFTHESEISSUESSEEHERTELANDMARTIN1999,HERTEL,HOEKMAN,ANDMARTIN2000,AMONGOTHERS3FORANOVERVIEWOFTHESTATUSOFIMPLEMENTATIONOFURUGUAYROUNDCOMMITMENTSOFPARTICULARIMPORTANCETODEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESSEEFINGERANDSCHULER1999THEDISCUSSIONINWILSON2000OUTLINESSPECIFICIMPLEMENTATIONDIFFICULTIESFACEDBYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADESEEALSO“TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADECHALLENGESANDOPPORTUNITIESFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,STATEMENTOFTHEWORLDBANK,TECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADECOMMITTEE,WORLDTRADEORGANIZATION,GENEVA,24FEBRUARY20002AGREEMENTONTHEAPPLICATIONOFSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSTANDARDSINSUM,WHETHERSANCTIONEDORNOTUNDERMULTILATERALTRADERULES,TECHNICALREGULATIONSIMPOSEDONTRADEINGOODSANDAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSAREAFFECTINGTRADEPATTERNS,THEABILITYOFPRODUCERSTOENTERNEWEXPORTMARKETS,ANDALSOCONSUMERCOSTSIMPORTANTQUESTIONSREMAIN,HOWEVER,THEANSWERSTOWHICHWILLDIRECTLYEFFECTTRADEPOLICYCHOICESANDTHESUCCESSORFAILUREOFLIBERALIZATIONEFFORTSINWHICHDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHAVEADIRECTSTAKEWHATISTHESPECIFICECONOMICIMPACTOFDIFFERINGTECHNICALREGULATIONSACROSSNATIONALBOUNDARIESWEHAVEFIVEYEARSOFEXPERIENCEWITHTHEWTOAGREEMENTSMENTIONEDABOVE,ASWELLASDETAILEDWORKUNDERWAYINREGIONALTRADETALKSSUCHASTHEASIAPACIFICECONOMICCOOPERATIONAPECONSTANDARDSINDUSTRYCALLSTOFOCUSONCOSTSOFREGULATORYBARRIERSTOTRADEHAVEACCELERATEDOVERTHEPASTDECADETHEREHAVEBEENFEWATTEMPTS,HOWEVER,TODETERMINETHEECONOMICIMPACTOFDIFFERINGSTANDARDSANDCONFORMITYASSESSMENTREQUIREMENTSBASEDONRIGOROUSEMPIRICALANALYSISANDRESEARCHTHEFIRSTSECTIONEXAMINESTHEPOLICYCONTEXTDRIVINGTHENEEDFORNEWDATAANDEMPIRICALEVIDENCEONTHETRADEEFFECTOFREGULATIONANDSTANDARDSWEDISCUSSTHERISINGINCIDENCEOFTECHNICALREGULATIONSASINSTRUMENTSOFCOMMERCIALPOLICYINTRADEDISPUTESTHISSECTIONALSODISCUSSESTHEPARTICULARCONCERNSOFDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINTHEDEBATEOVERSTANDARDSDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESMUSTSHOULDERADDITIONALCOSTSINMEETINGMANDATORYGOVERNMENTSTANDARDSTOSERVEEXPORTMARKETSINADDITION,WENOTETHATDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESALSOHAVEINPLACEDOMESTICREGULATORYPOLICIESAFFECTINGIMPORTSTHATCONTINUETOACTASPROTECTIONISTBARRIERSSHIELDINGINEFFICIENTDOMESTICPRODUCERSFROMCOMPETITIONTHETHIRDSECTIONOFTHEPAPERPROVIDESABRIEFOVERVIEWOFTHEROLEOFSTANDARDSINTRADEWETHENDISCUSSTHEJUSTIFICATIONSFORVOLUNTARYSTANDARDSANDMANDATORYTECHNICALREGULATIONSTHEYAREADDRESSEDINTERMSOFMARKETFAILURESSUCHASASYMMETRICINFORMATIONABOUTPRODUCTQUALITY,HEALTHMAINTENANCE,ANDNETWORKCOHERENCE,NOTINGPARTICULARISSUESTHATARISEINTHECROSSBORDERCONTEXTSTANDARDSHAVEIMPACTSONBOTHSTATICANDDYNAMICMARKETFAILURES,SUGGESTINGTHEREARESUBTLEEFFICIENCYANDWELFARETRADEOFFSTHEFOURTHSECTIONTURNSTOASURVEYOFMETHODOLOGICALAPPROACHESTHATHAVEBEENUSEDTOANALYZESTANDARDSWHICHWEBELIEVEMAYBEEXTENDEDANDIMPROVEDOURMAINPURPOSEINTHISSECTIONLIESINIDENTIFYINGTECHNIQUESTHATAREPRACTICALANDMAYBEFRUITFULLYEXTENDEDTOTHEEMPIRICALANALYSISOFSTANDARDSANDTRADETHECONTRIBUTIONOFTHEPAPER,THEREFORE,ISTHEIDENTIFICATIONOFCONCRETESTEPSTHATCOULDBETAKENTOMOVEFORWARDAPRACTICALRESEARCHPROGRAMOFEMPIRICALWORKASDISCUSSEDINTHEFINALSECTION,SUCHSTEPSWOULDINCLUDE1ADMINISTERINGFIRMLEVELSURVEYSINDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES,2CONFORMITYASSESSMENTINVOLVESTESTING,CERTIFICATION,LABORATORYACCREDITATION,ANDRELATEDLABELINGREQUIREMENTSFORACOMPREHENSIVEDISCUSSIONOFTHESEPROCEDURESANDRELATIONSHIPTOTRADESEE,NATIONALRESEARCHCOUNCIL19953DEVISINGMETHODSFORASSESSINGTHETRADERESTRICTIVENESSOFSTANDARDS,ANDESTABLISHINGECONOMETRICAPPROACHESTHATCOULDBEAPPLIEDTOMICRODATAFORUNDERSTANDINGTHEROLEOFSTANDARDSINEXPORTDYNAMICSSTANDARDSANDTHENEWTRADEAGENDAWHYECONOMICANALYSISMATTERSTHEREAREANUMBEROFREASONSWHYEMPIRICALWORKONTECHNICALANDREGULATORYBARRIERSTOTRADEISPARTICULARLYIMPORTANTINRELATIONTOTHENEWTRADEAGENDADEMANDFOREMPIRICALDATAANDANALYSISOFTHETRADEIMPACTOFSTANDARDSISBEINGDRIVENINPARTBYTHESIMPLEFACTTHATTARIFFBARRIERSANDTRADITIONALNONTARIFFMEASURESSUCHASQUOTASHAVEBEENSIGNIFICANTLYCURTAILED,ASNOTEDABOVEWEKNOWAGREATDEALMOREABOUTHOWTARIFFSORSUBSIDIESAFFECTTRADEANDTHEREFORETHEIMPLICATIONSOFFURTHERREDUCTIONSINTHESEPROTECTIVEMEASURESTOINFORMTRADEPOLICYDEBATEANDDECISIONMAKINGTHANISKNOWNABOUTHOWNONTARIFF,TECHNICALBARRIERSAFFECTTRADEFOREXAMPLE,ITISESTIMATEDTHATREDUCINGBY40PERCENTTARIFFSANDEXPORTSUBSIDIESINAGRICULTUREPRODUCESA60BILLIONPERYEARRISEINREALGLOBALINCOMEHERTEL,ANDERSON,FRANCOISANDMARTIN1999MOREOVER,BASEDONSOUNDEMPIRICALEVIDENCEANDDATA,ONEISREASONABLYCONFIDENTINSTATINGTHATAKEYFOCUSONREDUCTIONSININDUSTRIALTARIFFSINANEWROUNDOFTRADENEGOTIATIONSWOULDSIGNIFICANTLYBENEFITGLOBALWELFAREFOREXAMPLE,HERTELANDMARTIN1999FOUNDTHATAPPLIEDTARIFFSONMANUFACTURERSREDUCEDBY40PERCENTINCREASESTHEVOLUMEOFWORLDTRADEBY380BILLIONTHESEDATACLEARLYHELPINFORMPOLICYTRADEOFFSANDNEGOTIATINGPRIORITIESTHEREAREDEMONSTRABLEBENEFITSASSOCIATEDWITHAPRIORITYFOCUSONLIBERALIZATIONINGOODSFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESINCLUDINGNONTARIFFBARRIERSTOTRADEINSTANDARDSDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESACCOUNTTODAYFOR20PERCENTOFWORLDTOTALEXPORTSINGOODS,WITHMANUFACTURINGTOTALINGAPPROXIMATELY70PERCENTOFOVERALLEXPORTSREDUCINGDUPLICATIVEORDISCRIMINATORYTECHNICALBARRIERS,EITHERTHROUGHCHANGESINTHEBASISOFMANDATORYSTANDARDSTHEMSELVESORTHROUGHALTERATIONSINTESTINGANDCERTIFICATIONREQUIREMENTSIMPOSEDONMANUFACTURERSSHOULDFURTHERACCELERATETRADETHENEWIMPORTANCEOFEMPIRICALWORKONSTANDARDSISALSOREFLECTEDINTHEFACTTHATTHEREHASBEENARISEINTHEINCIDENCEOFTECHNICALREGULATIONSASINSTRUMENTSOFCOMMERCIALPOLICYEXAMPLESOFDISPUTESBROUGHTTOTHEWTO,AMONGOTHERS,HIGHLIGHTTHISFACTINRESPONSETOINCREASEDPRESSURESINTHETRADINGSYSTEMASCOUNTRIESEMPLOYREGULATORYBARRIERSTOPROTECTDOMESTICFIRMS,THEREHAVEBEENINCREASEDCALLSFORHARMONIZATIONOFSTANDARDSANDNEGOTIATIONOFMUTUALRECOGNITIONAGREEMENTSMRASCOVERINGPRODUCTTESTINGANDCERTIFICATIONSYSTEMSINBOTHTHESEAREAS,DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESHAVEASPECIALSTAKE,ASTHEYHAVEHADONLYLIMITEDINVOLVEMENTINSTANDARDSDEVELOPMENTACTIVITIESANDLACKMUCHOFTHEINFRASTRUCTURENECESSARYTOSUPPORTTHEMODERNTESTINGPROTOCOLSWHICHANMRAREQUIRESTHENEXTSECTIONOFTHISPAPERADDRESSESTHESETOPICSASAWAYTOUNDERSTANDTHEPOLICYCONTEXTDRIVINGDEMANDTRADE4THEMULTILATERALTRADESYSTEMSTANDARDSASAPRIORITYFORDEBATETHEINCREASEDPREMIUMONEMPIRICALDATATOINFORMPOLICYONTRADERELATEDTECHNICALBARRIERSISBASEDTOALARGEDEGREEONTHESIMPLENATUREOFTRADECONFLICTSTODAYTHEREHASBEENAMARKEDRISEINTHENUMBEROFTRADEDISPUTESOVERSTANDARDSBROUGHTTOTHEWTODURINGTHEPASTFIVEYEARSTHEMAJORITYOFTHESECENTERONTRADEINAGRICULTURALPRODUCTSANDOBLIGATIONSUNDERTHEAGREEMENTONSANITARYANDPHYTOSANITARYSTANDARDSTHEMOSTHIGHPROFILESTANDARDSCASESINRECENTYEARSHAVEBEENINAGRICULTURE,SUCHASTHEDISPUTEBETWEENTHEEUROPEANCOMMUNITYANDUNITEDSTATESOVERHORMONETREATEDBEEF5THEREISALSORISINGTRADETENSIONGENERATEDOVERTHEUSEOFGENETICALLYMODIFIEDORGANISMSGMOSINAGRICULTUREWHICHTHETRADINGSYSTEMWILLNEEDTOADDRESS8CLAIMSOFVIOLATIONOFVARIOUSPROVISIONSOFTHEAGREEMENTONTECHNICALBARRIERSTOTRADEHAVEALSOBEENINCREASINGSINCE1995DISPUTESOVERDOMESTICREGULATIONSAFFECTINGIMPORTSORTHEPROCESSANDPRODUCTIONMETHODSTHROUGHWHICHGOODSAREMANUFACTUREDAREBECOMINGMOREIMPORTANTASACONSEQUENCE,THEVIABILITYOFWTODISCIPLINESTOADDRESSNEWAREASWHEREDOMESTICREGULATIONAFFECTSTRADEISBEINGTESTEDTHISWILLUNDOUBTEDLYBECOMEMOREIMPORTANTAS1ECONOMICACTIVITYCONTINUESTODISPERSEAROUNDTHEWORLD,2EXPORTSOFFINISHEDGOODSBYDEVELOPINGCOUNTRIESTHATALREADYHAVESTATUSTOBRINGCOMPLAINTSINTHEWTOGROW,AND3COUNTRIESSUCHASCHINA,RUSSIA,ANDUKRAINEAREBROUGHTINTOTHEWTOMEMBERSHIPAMONGTHECENTRALQUESTIONSINTHISDEBATECONCERNSWHATCONSTITUTESAN“INTERNATIONAL“STANDARDANDRELATEDISSUESOFRISKTHEREISALREADYGROWINGPRESSUREINTHETRADINGSYSTEMASSOCIATEDWITHTECHNICALBARRIERSTOIMPORTSEMPLOYEDBYGOVERNMENTASOFTHEENDOFJANUARY1999,THEWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTBODYHASCONSIDEREDATOTALOF25DISPUTESTHATREFERENCEEITHERTHESPSORTBTAGREEMENTSWILSON1999AMAJORITYOFTHESECASES,WHICHINCLUDESTEPSINTHEPROCESSFROMREQUESTSFORCONSULTATIONSTHROUGHSOMECASESENDINGINPANELANDAPPELLATEBODYRULINGS,CITEDPROVISIONSINBOTHTHESPSANDTBTAGREEMENTSNINEOFTHEDISPUTESCENTEREDONFOODSAFETYREGULATIONS,FIVECASESINVOLVEDTECHNICALREGULATIONSTIEDTOCUSTOMSREQUIREMENTS,WITHTHEREMAININGCASESINAREASSUCHASQUOTAS,IMPORTBANS,ANDDISPUTESOVERENVIRONMENTALLAWSITISIMPORTANTTONOTETHATALTHOUGHTHEMAJORITYOFCOMPLAINTSBROUGHTTOTHEWTOTODATEAREFROMDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIES19CASES,THELESSDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESHAVEEXERCISEDTHEIRRIGHTSTOBRINGCASESIN6INSTANCESDEVELOPEDCOUNTRIESHAVEALSOBEENRESPONDENTSIN3CASESFINALLY,THEREAREOBVIOUSMARKETACCESSIMPLICATIONSFORDEVELOPINGCOUNTRYEXPORTERSINDECISIONSMADEINWTOCASESBROUGHT5ANOVERVIEWOFALLWTODISPUTESETTLEMENTCASESMAYBEACCESSEDVIATHEWTOWEBSITEATWWWWTOORG/WTO/DISPUTE/BULLETINHTMANDTHROUGHTHEWTODOCUMENTDISTRIBUTIONFACILITYATWWWWTOORG/DDFTHEUSEUCASEONHORMONETREATEDBEEFISCATALOGEDUNDERWT/DS26G3FINGER和SG70HULERG31999。威尔逊的讨论2000概述协议的发展中国家面对的具体实G7057困难关于G6228G7427贸易壁垒。参见“G6228G7427贸易壁垒发展中国家的挑战和机会，世界银行的声G7138，G6228G7427贸易壁垒委G2604会，世界贸易组织，日G1881瓦，G32000年2月2G23日。在G7389益G1593G5259和植物卫生的标准的应用。G32关于有益健康和植物卫生的标准的应用的协议。G3G3是否认G2499G7693G6466G3822G17805G2842G1006规G2029、给在物品的贸易G5390加的G6228G7427G12468程和G1904产品G5445G2721贸易格局、生产G2842的G14033G2159G17839G1849G7044的出口市场，并且G7389消费G13785的费用。G9994G13792，G18337要问题依G9994存在对的答复将直接G3332G5445G2721贸易G6931策选择和G14270G11013化G2174G2159的G6116G2163G6122G13785失败。G1866中发展中国家G7389G980个直接立桩圈G3332。什么是G993同的G6228G7427G12468程的具体经济冲击横跨国界G3我们G7389五年与G58G55O协议的经验，并且G17839行中的细节工作在G3332方G2842G1006G16860G16817例如亚太经济G2524作APEC的标准。集中的产G1006于G12661G10714贸易壁垒的费用在过去十年中加速了。G9994G13792，G11842G4462G7693G6466G1017谨经验主义的G2010析和研究的G993同的标准和G980G14280评价要求的经济冲击，在我们开始与围拢产品标准的G6931策辩论和方法G4410问题G2010析概要和G6228G7427贸易壁垒作为步往G6564G1391G7044的经验主义的工作G7706G7562。G12544G980个部G2010G4469G7609G20562G20554对G7044的数G6466的G19668要和在G12468程和标准的G2842G1006作用的G6931策G990下G7003实验G16789G6466。我们G16860论G6228G7427G12468程的G990G2331的发生作为G2842G1006G6931策的G1214G3132在贸易G1117G12483中部G2010在关于标准的辩论中G1075G16860论发展中国家特别G1119G5785。发展中国家必G20047G6297G17139在G12538G2524必G20047的G6931G5232标准的G17873加G6116本G7393务出口市场。另外，我们G8892G5859发展中国家G1075G7389G2052国G1881G12661G10714G6931策G5445G2721继续作为保护G1186G12466G1117的保护贸易主义的G19568G11873G7092G13479G7536的国G1881生产G2842的G17839口。本G7003的G12544G989个部G2010G6564G1391标准的G16294G14406G980个G12628要概述。我们G16860论义务标准和必G20047的G6228G7427G12468程的辩G16311。他们G9448G16774G7693G6466市场失败例如关于产品质量、G1593G5259G13512护和G13605G13488G1969G13870的G993对G12228的信息，G8892G5859在跨G17246G17805界G990下G7003出G10628的特G8542问题。标准G7389对G19757G5589的冲击，并且G7389G8975G2159的市场的失败，G5326议那G18336是G5506G3949的G6940G10587和G12131G2045G6949济G1144易。G12544G3247个部G2010G17728G2533被用于G2010析标准我们G11468信G1075G16780是G5322G19283的并且被改G17839了方法论的G2220测。我们的在这个部G2010的主要G11458的是实用的，并且G1075G16780G2343G7389G6116G6940G3332G5322G1292G2052对标准的经验主义的G2010析和G6454的G6228G7427。本G7003的G17141G10498，是G2499G14033采G2474G2081G17839经验主义的工作G980个实用研究方G7708具体步的G16789G7138。如最G2530的部G2010所述，这G7691在发展中国家将G2265G63361G6203行G3374G3278的G8712G5191G16855G7609，2G3G980G14280评价G1183G1849测G16809的G16789G7138、实验G4472G7828G4462和G11468关的标G16772的要求。关于这些对贸易的G1582法和关系的G980G8437全面讨论看见，全国研究会议199G24。G33标准的商业限制DEVISING方法建立可能被运用于微数据为了解标准的角色在出口动力学的经济计量学的方法。G3标准的和G7044的G2842G1006议程经济G2010析G1119G5589为什么是G980G4462数量的G2419因，为什么经验主义在G6228G7427和G12661G10714贸易壁垒工作关于G7044的G2842G1006议程是特别G18337要的。对标准的G2842G1006冲击的经验数G6466和G2010析的G19668求被G20562G20554G980部G2010被G1119实关税G19568G11873和传统G19762关税G6526G7057，例如配额G7186G14891被G2078G1955了，如G990所述。我们G5602G7691G11705G17959关于G19762关税，G6228G7427性贸易G3573垒G5445G2721贸易G19762G5132G11705G17959G7368G3822关于关税G6122G15929G17160G5445G2721贸易并且G17839G980步G1955G4581的G9097义对THESEG83RG82TEG70TIG89E的G6526G7057的G17902G11705贸易G6931策辩论和G6931策制G4462。例如，估计G1955G4581G11013G230G8关税和在G1904G1006的出口G15929G17160生产G7G250G1171在真G8503的全球性G6922G1849HERTEL的年G990G2331、G4445G5478生、G41RANG70G82IS和马丁1999。G13792且，G7693G6466G2524G10714的实验G16789G6466和数G6466，G980个对G19428G7138，是G2524G10714G3332G11842信在G1955G4581的G980个关G19202G9978G9869对在贸易G16860G2040G980个G7044的G3290的工G1006关税将G7509G3835G7389益于全球性G12131G2045。例如，G3HERTEL和马丁1999发G10628在G230G8G1955G4581的制G17908G2842的应用的关税增加世界贸易的G4493量G7G22G270G1171。这些数G6466G7138G7186G3332G5122助G17902G11705G6931策G1144易和G16860G2040的优G1820G7447。G7389G2499G12046G14551的G3921G3800与在G14270G11013化的G980个优G1820G7447G9978G9869G11468关在发展中国家的物品G3G16G16G3G2265G6336G19762关税贸易壁垒在标准的。发展中国家G1182G3837G2356世界G5647出口的20G8在物品的，与制G17908G1006G5647计G3835G13434整体出口的G260G8。G1955G4581G18337复G6122G5058别对G5465的G6228G7427性贸易G3573垒，G17902过在必G20047的标准G990的依G6466的G2476化G6122G17902过在测G16809和给制G17908G2842G5390加的G16789G7138要求的改G2476应该G17839G980步加速贸易。经验主义的工作的G7044的G18337要性在标准的在G1119实G1075被反射G7389在G6228G7427G12468程的发生的G990G2331作为G2842G1006G6931策的G1214G3132。G3给G58G55O带来的G1117G6203的例子，除了别的以外，G12373出这个G1119实。以G3250应在G2842G1006系统的增加的压G2159作为国家使用G12661G10714G19568G11873保护国G1881企G1006，G7389增加的呼叫请求标准的互G11468G6227认协议MRAS的和谐和G1144涉G2265G6336产品测G16809和G16789书制的。G3在这两个G2318G3507，发展中国家G7389特别G2045益，因为他们在标准发展G8975动G7389仅G7389限的G1183G1849并且缺乏必要G16780G3822的基础设G7057支持MRA要求的G10628代测G16809协议。本G7003的下部G2010G9448G16774这些题G11458作为方式了G16311G20562G20554对标准的经验主义的G2010析的G6931策G990下G7003G19668求和G6454。G34多边商业系统标准作为辩论的一种优先权在通知由于TRADERELATED技术性贸易堡垒的政策经验数据增加保险费根据商业冲突的简单的本质到大规模范围。G3G7389在贸易G1117G12483的数量的G7138G7186G990G2331优于给G58G55O带来的标准在过去五年期间。G3这些的G3822数在G1904产品的贸易和义务围绕G7693G6466关于G7389益G1593G5259和植物卫生的标准的协议。G3G3822数高姿G5589标准G1119例近年来在G1904G1006，例如在欧洲社G2318和美国G1055间的G1117G6203优于激素被对G5465的牛肉。G3G24G7389G1075G990G2331的贸易摩擦引起在使用基因G990修改过的G7389机体GMOS在G2842G1006系统将G19668要G9448G16774侵害G27CLAIG80S协议各种各G7691的G1391应关于G6228G7427贸易壁垒的G14270199G24年以来G1075增加的G1904G1006。G1117G6203优于物品是制作的国G1881G12468程G5445G2721G17839口G6122过程的和生产方法G2476得G7368加G18337要。G13479G7536，G3G58G55OG4410G12197的生G8975G14033G2159G9448G16774国G1881G12468程G5445G2721贸易被测G16809的G7044的G2318G3507的。G3这将G11013在G58G55O中已经带来的状G5589怨G16340增G19283，并且G22国家例如中国、俄国和G1056克兰被带领G17839G1849G58G55O会G2604资格的发展中国家G7092疑G3332G6116为制G6116品G7368加G18337要的，当1经济G8975动继续G2010散G10627球，2出口。G3在主要问题G1055中在这G8437辩论中G7389关什么构G6116风险的“国际”标准和G11468关问题。已经G7389在G2842G1006系统的生G19283压G2159与G6228G7427性贸易G3573垒G11468关对G6931G5232使用的G17839口。G3G142701999年1月，G3G58G55OG1117G6203G16311决身体考虑了G5647共2G24G1117G6203那参考SPSG6122G55BG55协议威尔逊1999。G3G3835G3822数这些G7708G1226，在G1186要求的过程G2265G6336咨询G17902过在盘G2318和受G10714G990诉的身体G2040决的G7389些G7708G1226G13479尾，援引在SPS和G55BG55协议的G1391应。G3九G1117G6203在食品G4445全性G12468程围绕，五个G7708G1226G1183G1849了G6228G7427G12468程被栓对海关规G4462，与剩余的G7708G1226在G2318G3507例如配额、G12117G8502G17839口和G1117G6203优于G10627G3671法。G3G8892G5859G2052是G18337要的，虽G9994给G58G55O带来的G3822数怨G16340迄G1182是G1186发G17810国家19个G7708G1226，欠发G17810的国家行使了他们的G7447G2045带来在G25个G1119例的G7708G1226。G3发G17810国家G1075是G22个G7708G1226的应答G13785。G3终于，G7389发展中国家出口G2842的G7138G7186的市场准G1849G9097义在G58G55OG1119例G1582出的决G4462带来了G24所G7389G58G55O概要盒G1075G16780访问列在WWWWTG82G82RG/WTG82/DISG83UTE/BULLETINHTG80的G58G55OG13605站的G1117G6203G16311决。G3并且G17902过在WWWWTG82G82RG/DDF的G58G55OG7003G1226销售条G1226。G3美国G16欧盟在激素被对G5465的牛肉装G1849编G11458在G58G55/DS2G25G3G3G58G55/DSG23G27G1055下。G35反应对被开发的成员，例如美国。二个案件说明这个事实和下面简单地被回顾。G3美国请求与日本的咨询在199G26年G23月G26日，关于日本G5390加的要求为八G1904产品每种测G16809和G16789实G7828疫治疗的G6940G2159苹G7536、樱桃、桃子G2265G6336油桃，核桃、杏子、梨、李子和柑橘。G3日本G12468程G12117G8502这些产品的G17839口美国，G7693G6466