从礼貌问题看委婉语

1、From Pragmatics politeness in principle to see the euphemism【Abstract】 Euphemism, cosmetic words, is not only a lingual phenomenon, but also a cultural and social phenomenon. It is like a mirror, reflecting the values, aesthetic conceptions and moral concepts in some extent. Euphemism plays an impor

2、tant part in social communication. It is like lube that avoids hurting the other partys feeling. It oils the human relationship in communication and helps to save face of communicators. If people make full use of euphemism, it can accelerate and facilitate human communication. This paper elaborates

3、on the features and social functions of euphemism. And it focuses on the relationships between its polite functions and Politeness Principle. This thesis is composed of six parts with Chapter Four and Five as its core: The first chapter focuses on the origin and definitions of euphemism. The second

4、chapter discusses the features of euphemism in many ways. The third chapter talks about the social functions of euphemism from the angle of pragmatics. The fourth chapter forms the basis of the whole research by connecting euphemism with politeness and face-saving theory. The fifth chapter centers o

5、n euphemism and Politeness Principle. The last chapter concludes the whole thesis. Appropriate use of English euphemism can contribute a lot to successful message exchange.【Key Words】 euphemism; social functions; Politeness Principle; face want【摘 要】 委婉语是一种语言现象，一种文化现象，更是一种社会现象，在一定程度上， 它反映了社会的价值观，审美观和

6、美德观。委婉语在社会交际中发挥着重要作用。日常的约定俗成的委婉语能起润滑剂的作用，通过委婉语，可以避免语言过于直露而给对方造成伤害。 它是语言使用中人们用来协调人际关系的有效润滑剂，是保全交际各方面子的重要手段。很多中外学者曾从不同的角度对英语委婉语进行了长期的研究并取得了可喜的成果。本文主要研讨了委婉语的特点，社会功用，并从语用学的角度分析了委婉语的社会功用，礼貌原则及面子问题。本文分为六个部分。第四和第五章是文章的重点。第一章主要探讨了委婉语的定义及起源。第二章从很多方面概括了委婉语的特点。第三章从语用的角度分析了委婉语的社会功用。第四章把委婉语与礼貌，面子保全论联系在一起，是本文的核心。

7、第五章侧重于委婉语貌与礼貌原则的关系。本文的实践意义在于其分析结论有助于保证信息传递的顺利进行并促进人们的日常交流。【关键词】 委婉语；社会功用；礼貌原则；面子1. IntroductionThere is a humor: Once a Paris tourist resided in UK. A landlady told him sadly that, “My husband has just passed to the other side.” The guest looked from the fence of the garden but saw no one, feeling c

8、onfused. The landlady explained: “I mean hes kicked the bucket.” The guest comforted her that: “I hope his foot will be better soon.” The landlady felt unintelligibly and said: “No, he wasnt here, he snuffed it you know.” The guest wondered and said: “But youve got electricity here.”The reasons why

9、the guest didnt answer properly are that he didnt realize that the landlady used euphemism, nor did he understand the “conversational implicature” of euphemism. What the landlady wanted to say is that her husband died.The word euphemism comes from the Greek word “euphemos”, meaning auspicious/good/f

10、ortunate speech which in turn is derived from the Greek root- words eu, good/well + pheme, speech/speaking. The eupheme was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud (Such as taboo). The primary examples of taboo words requiring the use o

11、f a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as Persephone, Hecate, Nemesis or Yahweh. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, the speaker attempted to produce good fortune by remaining in good favor with them.“Euphemism is defined in the New Edition of the Oxford Conci

12、se Dictionary (1976) as Substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or direct one; expression thus substituted. IN Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (1973) the definition reads, Substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something

13、unpleasant.”1 Euphemism is an important rhetorical means in English. It plays an important role in peoples daily communication. It is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also a social phenomenon. It just likes a mirror, which reflects some social and psychological phenomena. 2. Features of euphemism

14、2.1 Indirect and implicitThe most important character of euphemism is indirect and implicit. Euphemism always gives people hints in a roundabout way. We can infer the deeper meaning and intention from the context. For example, when someone is ill, we always say he is under the weather. If someone is

15、 mad, we say he is soft in mind.2.2 UniversalityUniversality is something that is well-known and accepted by all of the people. Though euphemism is indirect and it doesnt come straight to the point, people can easily infer its deeper implication. Some taboos connected with sex, death, or body functi

16、ons are replaced by euphemisms. And the public has accepted this kind of use. For example, when we refer to death, we seldom say “die”. We use the expression “pass away”.2.3 The feature of timesThe changes of language depend on the need and changes of the society. And euphemism undergoes a process o

17、f metabolism. It bears a marked brand of times.For example, “She is pregnant has many different euphemistic expressions in different eras.(1) She has canceled all her social engagements. (1856)(2) She is in an interesting condition. (1880)(3) She is in a delicate condition. (1895)(4) She is knitting

18、 little bootees. (1910)But after 1960s, euphemisms of pregnant develop slowly because in modern times, people are not so implicit. They always mention things directly. And now, the phenomenon of pregnant is a cheerful thing. People will not be shy when mentioning it. “The word gay, at first, it mean

19、s happy and homosexuality. But as euphemism develops, the word gay only reminds us the meaning of homosexuality. Thus, people dont use the expression We are young and gay.”2 2.4 Regional featureEuphemism, there are some regional differences. An Australian woman married to an American man. They spent

20、 their honeymoon in America. And one day, the couple intended to go to a party together. But the bridegroom couldnt find a suitable full dress. The bride took out a birthday suit that she gave him as a present few days ago and said: “Why not wear your birthday suit?” However, the whole family all as

21、tonished because in American English, “in ones birthday suit” 3is the euphemistic expression of “naked”. So this embarrassing situation resulted from the regional differences in euphemism. There are two causes of regional differences.First is a regional cultural difference. In different regions, the

22、 culture there will effect the development of euphemism. For example, “go to w.c.”. In the Balliol college of Oxford University, students call “go to toilet as to visit Lady Periam”4 because the toilets of that college were built on the land donated by Lady Periam. Of course, Americans will not agre

23、e with this expression.“Second is the difference of geographic environment. For example, in seaside, death would be connected with sea and tide. They may use go with the tide to express die. On the contrary, in American west mountain areas, the euphemism for die is (gone) over the range or to cross

24、the Great Divide. These are the typical regional euphemisms.”5 2.5 Diversity of lingual regionSomeone thinks that only upper and middle class use euphemism. But this conclusion is too absolute. We can analyze this in three aspects.2.5.1 Differences of gender or age“A study shows that female use more

25、 euphemisms than male do. There is a saying in English: horse sweat; men perspire; young ladies glow. (Brock, 1973:73) Women use obscure word to express the action of sweat. And the difference of gender and age usually influence the choice of the synonyms of euphemism. For instance, there are a vari

26、ety of expressions about go to toilet. Men use the expression to shoot a lion. Adults may say to go to w.c. And children say to go to the pot.”6 2.5.2 Difference of profession or identityEuphemism changes while the profession and identity change. This is a synchrony variation. The word “die” can be

27、used in many different ways. “In military, people use the expression to lose number of ones mess. This expression orients from the mess system of UK navy. However, in the press, people often use the word thirty because they usually mark 30 in the end of a news article, which means ending.”3. Pragmat

28、ic functions of euphemism3.1 Taboo function“Taboo is the main psychological basis of the emergence of euphemism. Euphemism is the avoidance of the unpleasant, inelegant things. A famous sociolinguist Mr. Chen Yuan once said: Generally speaking, the coming into being of euphemism all begins from tabo

29、o. From the origin of euphemism, we can see that taboo is the first function of euphemism. Euphemism has been using for a long time, and it is closely related to taboo. In fact, euphemism dates back to the language taboo in the early period of human civilization. When people try to avoid and give up

30、 taboo words, they have to find another word to replace this vacancy at the same time. Hence, people created euphemism.” There are some taboo things, such as birth, death, funeral, sex, nakedness, defecation, and urinate. If they are expressed directly, they are called taboo words and the feelings t

31、hey give us are vulgar, crude and harsh, whereas if they are expressed indirectly, they are called euphemism, and the impressions they made on us are elegant, implicit and polite. The evading function of euphemism also works today. Some taboo notions cannot be easily removed from peoples mind. 7 Tho

32、ugh science and technology are highly developed today, the word “death” is the taboo words to all nations. Thus there are a lot of euphemisms related with it. “Such as pass away, answer the final call, be asleep in Jesus, be safe in the arms of Jesus, be at rest, be called to God, be home and free,

33、be in Abrahams bosom, cross the River Jordan, final sleep, go home, go to meet ones maker, go to ones own place, join ones ancestors, join the great majority, return to dust, with God, be no longer with us, pay the debt of nature, tick the bucket, etc.” “Among those, one-way-ticket is the synonym of

34、 die. It reflects the speakers experience of life. Life is just like travel. People set out to travel, but when they arrive to the termination, they cannot go back. In the past, people often used graveyard to express the place where the dead sleep peacefully. But the associations it gives us are hor

35、rified and gloomy. So now, people use funeral home and memorial park to replace them. In such a way, it comforts people.” 3.2 Polite function Polite function of euphemism is to avoid inelegant things and make people feel pleasant. As Joanna Channell put in her book Vague Language “Vagueness is used

36、as one way of adhering to the politeness rules for a particular culture, and of not threatening face.” It means that in real life, when people meet with some unpleasant things or behaviors, they usually choose some vague expressions to avoid making bold or hurting others feeling-to use euphemism. It

37、 is harsh to say someone is deaf, so people use “auditory-impaired” to replace it. They sound more gracefully. “When English-speakers refer to the appearance, they dont use the word ugly or awful, which has strong derogatory sense. Instead, they use the word plain-looking or not pretty.” Westerners

38、are sensitive to age. In their opinion, “old” equals to “useless” in some extent. In order not to hurt the feeling and self-esteem of the old, “old men” are replaced by “senior citizens” or “seasoned men”. For the word “senior” has many meanings. Except “older”, it also means higher in rank or autho

39、rity. And the word “seasoned” means experienced. “Following are some euphemisms about profession.” 8 Harsh expression euphemismbutcher Meat technologistChimney worker Chimney consultantfireman Fire fighterGarbage man Sanitation engineerhairdresser Hair stylisthousekeeper Household executivePress-age

40、nt Public relation counselorPrison guard Correctional officer3.3 Covering up functionIn Vagueness Language, Channell stated covering up function as deliberately withholding information. What is so called “cover up” means “not giving information which the speaker possesses and which could be appropri

41、ate in the situation.” 9 Western political life gives birth to euphemism. Some politicians and news medias have made good use of the vagueness of euphemism to cover up the facts of some events for the purpose of making the politics, economy, and military more steady. Concealing the dark side of soci

42、ety is to alleviate the social contradictions caused by sex, violence, poverty, unemployment, and crime. There are some euphemisms about social phenomena. “Venereal disease” has been beautified as “social disease”. “Rape”, a kind of crime, is mentioned casually as “interfere with”; “prostitution bec

43、ame a high-sounding profession-the oldest profession in the world.” 10 In politicians view, violence is a kind of action and dismissal is also “lay off”. People dont need to be surprised at these phenomena.In western countries, politicians create some political euphemisms to serve their political go

44、als. They try to conceal the facts as to ease the tense relations between other countries and reassure and pacify publics anti-war emotions. For example, In Vietnam War, Gulf war, or Iraqi war, a number of euphemisms emerged to gloss over the horror and cruelty of war and contemptible diplomatic mea

45、ns. “Following is a chart about military euphemisms.” air strike air optionbombing and blasting softening up the resistancecivilian casualties collateral damagedefense crushed defense neutralizedground war ground operationinvasion pre-emptive actionmissile Vehiclenuclear bomb nuclear deviceretreat s

46、trategic withdrawalsuicidal attack one-way missionwarhead payloadThere are also some euphemisms about economy. “People use depression instead of economic crises. The word Striking has been beautified as industrial action.” and when people mentioned slum, they often use “substandard housing” to repla

47、ce it. “The euphemisms here are in the true sense of the word “false.” They are used to cover up the true nature of events, deceiving the public with nice-sounding and pseudo technical words.”4. Euphemism and politeness4.1 Euphemism and interpersonal communicationEuphemism has been widely used in th

48、e real human communication. It can be regarded as a kind of polite terms .In primitive and traditional society, taboo and euphemism are the two sides of a coin. They are used for social control and religious control. And in modern English, there are a number of words connected with holy, sex, body o

49、rgan and body function. So when peoples topic refers to those, they have to find euphemisms to replace them. They often use some vague language to avoid mentioning them directly.4.2 Politeness and face-threatening theory The main function of euphemism is polite function. Thus, the main character of

50、euphemism is polite. Politeness plays an important role in human communication. It oils human relationships. So euphemism accords with politeness will accelerate human communication.5. Euphemism and Politeness PrincipleFrom the above, we know that euphemism has something to do with politeness. We ca

51、n associate politeness with Politeness Principle.5.1 Leechs politeness principle “Generally speaking, most of the euphemisms accord with conversational principle, especially politeness principle. Leechs (1983:132) maxims of the Politeness Principle tend to go in pairs as follows:(1)Tact Maxim (in im

52、positives and commissives)a. Minimize cost to other;b. Maximize benefit to other.Some examples : a、If you keep this diet, youll be on the heavy side.(c.f.: If you keep on eating too much, youll become very fat.)b、Thank you for your kind hospitality.(c.f.: Thank you for your delicious food.)(2)Genero

53、sity Maxim (in impositives and commissives)a. Minimize benefit to self;b. Maximize cost to self.Some examples: a、Would you do me a favor?(c.f.: Can you help me?)b、I shall never cease to feel grateful for your favors.(c.f.: I shall never cease to feel grateful for your help.)(3)Approbation Maxim (in

54、expressives and assertives)a. Minimize dispraise of other;b. Maximize praise of other.Leech ties politeness to the relationship between both parties and the language used. He claims that “static” feature, such as social distance, interact with “dynamic” features, such as the kind of illocutionary de

55、mand the speaker is making on the maker, to produce an appropriate degree of politeness. The core of his politeness is to minimize the expression of impolite benefits.5.2 Polite function and Politeness Principle Polite function is the basic social function of euphemism. And Politeness Principle show

56、s this function. Euphemism always abides by the Politeness Principle. In such a case, euphemism can make peoples relationship more harmonious. But there are also some exceptions. Euphemisms of military do not accord with Politeness principle most of the time.5.3 Politeness Principle and the cooperat

57、ive PrincipleThe Politeness Principle shows equal and friendly relationships between people in the society. It demands that in communication, the speaker should cooperate with the hearer. The two parties use euphemisms to replace harsh words because it can meet the psychological needs of face-want.

58、And the language used by the two parties should be appropriate. Generally speaking, the appropriateness of the speech is closely related with euphemism. However, “The Maxim of Relevance” of Grices “Cooperative Principle” limits the choice of euphemism. He suggests that in communication, the reply of the hearer should be closely related to the speech of the speaker. In the process of communication, the euphemisms used just now should be connected with the primary language symbols. In such case, it will provide a clue to the hearer so that he can understand the conn