外文文献(市场营销策略

1、Marketing StrategyMarket Segmentation and Target StrategyA market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with identifying the differences t

2、hat exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets.Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing resources.Also,it allows a small company to compete effectively by concentrating on one

3、or two segments.The apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market strategy.However, if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers needs will actually result in greater efficiency.The three

4、alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple segment.Market-aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated market.With a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is d

5、irected at only one segment of the total market.A multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment.Positioning the ProductManagements ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from simil

6、ar products goes a long way toward determining that products revenues.Thus management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firms other products.Marketing executives can choose from a variety of position

7、ing strategies.Sometimes they decide to use more than one for a particular product.Here are several major positioning strategies:1.Positioning in Relation to a competitorFor some products,the best position is directly against the competition.This strategy is especially suitable for a firm that alrea

8、dy has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an advantage.To fend off rival markers of microprocessors,Intel Corp.launched a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to competitors.The company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,Intel Inside in thei

9、r ads.As the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing strategies.At the same time,it keeps an eye on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match any clever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor.2.Positioning in Relation to a Product Class or Attribute Sometime

10、s a companys positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or attributes.Some companies try to place their products in a desirable class,such asMade in the USA.In the words of one consultant,There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,Made in the

11、 USA.Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors such as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which dont produce all of their products in the U.S.3.Positioning by Price and QualityCertain producer and retailers are k

12、nown for their high-quality products and high prices.In the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the price-quality continuum.Discount stores such as Target and Kmart are at the other.Were not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stre

13、ss low prices.Penneys tiredand for the most part succeeded inrepositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing designer names.The word brands is comprehensive;it encompasses other narrower terms.A brand is a name and/or mark intended to identify the pro

14、duct of one seller or group of sellers and differentiate the product from competing products. A brand name consists of words,letters,and/or numbers that can be vocalized.A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of a symbol, design,or distinctive color or lettering.A brand mark

15、is recognized buy sight bu cannot be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.Crest,Coors,and rider for Ralph Laurens Polo Brand.Green Giant(canned and frozen vegetable products)and Arm&Hammer(baking soda)are both brand names and brand marks.A trademark is a brand that has been adopted by a

16、 seller and given legal protection.A trademark includes not just the brand mark,as many people believe,but also the brand name.The Lanham Act of 1946 permits firms to register trademarks with the federal government to protect them from use or misuse by other companies.The Trademark Law Revision Act,

17、which took effect in 1989,is tended to strengthen the the registration system to the benefit of U.S. Firms. For sellers,brands can be promoted.They are easily recognized when displayed in a store or included in advertising.Branding reduces price comparisons.Because brands are another factor that nee

18、ds to be considered in comparing different products,branding reduces the likelihood of purchase decision based solely on price.The reputation of a brand also influences customer loyalty among buyers of services as well as customer goods.Finally,branding can differentiate commodities(Sunkist oranges,

19、Morton salt,and Domino sugar,for example).PricingPricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their products.They change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations.Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes

20、 through its life cycle.Marketers face important choice when they select new product pricing strategies.The company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative product.In pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting h

21、igh prices toskimthe maximum amount of revenue from various segments of the market.Or it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share.Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and situatio

22、ns.One is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or loca

23、tions. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisions,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the products quality or value.In promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes ev

24、en selling below cost.With value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quality and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing from alternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricin

25、g, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally, international pricing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets.Distribution ChannelsMost producers use intermediaries to bring their products to market.They try to forge a distribution cha

26、nnela set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or service available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user.Why do producers give some of the selling job to intermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom th

27、e products are sold.The use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets.Through their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts.A distr

28、ibution channel moves goods from producers to customers.It overcomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions:1.Information.2.Promotion.3.Cont

29、act:finding and communicating with prospective buyers.4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyers needs, including such activities as manufacturing and packaging.5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred.Other help to

30、fulfill the completed transferred.1.Transporting and storing goods.2.Financing.3.Risk taking:assuming the risk of carrying out the channel work.The question is not whether these functions need to be performed, but rather who is to perform them. All the functions have three things in common:They use

31、up scarce resource, they often can be performed better through specialization, and they can be shifted among channel members.To the extent that the manufacturer performs these functions, its costs go up and its prices have to be higher. At the same time, when some of these functions are shifted to i

32、ntermediaries, the producers costs and prices may be lower, but the intermediaries must charge more to cover the costs of their work. In dividing the work of the channel, the various functions should be assigned to the channel members who can perform them most efficiently and effectively to provide

33、satisfactory assortments of goods to target consumers.Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediaries that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the pro

34、ducer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel.When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics distinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel members years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit

35、 record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carried, and the size and quality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution,

36、 the company will want to evaluate the stores customers, location, and future growth potential.Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important, as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because t

37、hey provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets. The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel le

38、vels, which can include no intermediaries in a direct channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels.Promotion Promotion is one of the four major elements of the companys marketing mix. The main promotion toolsadvertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal sellingwork t

39、ogether to achieve the companys communications objectives.People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling,

40、and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and resellers. 市场营销策略一、市场细分和目标市场策略具有需求，具有购买能力并愿意花销的个体或组织构成了市场。然而，在大多数市场中，购买者的需求不一致。因此，对整个市场采用单一的营销计划可能不会成功。一个合理的营销计划应以区分市场中存在的差异为起点，这一过程被称为市场细分，它还包括将何种细分市场作为目标市场。市场细分使公司

41、能更加有效地利用其营销资源。而且，也使得小公司可以通过集中在一两个细分上场上有效地参与竞争。市场细分的明显缺点是，其导致了比单一产品、单一大市场策略更高的生产和营销成本。但是，如果市场细分得当的话，更加符合消费者的需求，实际上将生产更高的效率。确定目标市场有三种可供选择的策略，它们是统一市场、单一细分市场和多重细分市场。统一市场策略即采取一种营销组合用到一个整体的、无差异的市场中去。采取单一细分市场策略，公司仍然仅有一种营销组合，但它只用在整个市场的一个细分市场中。多重细分市场策略需要选择两个或更多的细分市场，并且每个细分市场分别采用一种单独的营销组合。二、产品定位管理者将注意力集中于一种品牌

42、，并以恰当的方式将其与类似的品牌相区分，但这并不意味着该品牌就一定能够最后赢利。因此，管理者需要进行定位，即塑造与竞争品牌和竞争对手的其他品牌相关的自我品牌形象。市场营销人员可以从各种定位策略中加以选择。有时，他们决定对某一特定产品采用一种以上的策略。以下是几种主要的定位策略：1.与竞争者相关的定位对一些产品来说，最佳的定位是直接针对竞争对手。该策略特别适用于已经具有固定的差别优势或试图强化这种优势的厂商。为排挤微处理器的竞争对手，Intel公司开展了一项活动使用户确信它的产品优于竞争对手的产品。公司甚至为电脑制造商出钱，让它们在自己的广告中带上“Intel Inside”标志。作为市场领导者

43、，可口可乐公司推出新产品并实施其市场营销策略。同时，它密切注视百事可乐公司，以确保对主要竞争对手的任何一次巧妙、有效的营销举措采取相应的对策。2.与产品类别和属性相关的定位有时候，公司的定位策略有必要将自己的产品与其类别和属性相联系（或相区别）。一些公司尽力将其产品定位在期望的类别中，如“美国制造”。用一句某顾问的话来说，“当你说美国制造的时候，有一种强烈的感情因素在吸引着你”。因此，一家名为Boston Preparatory的规模不大的运动服制造商正在运用这种定位策略，以期胜过那些并非所有产品都在美国制造的势力强大的竞争对手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。3.通过

44、价格和质量定位某些生产者和零售商因其高质量和高价格而闻名。在零售行业，Saks Fifth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于该价格质量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart则是定位于该策略的反面。我们不是说折扣商店忽视质量，而是说它们更加强调低廉的价格。Pennys公司努力并且大多获得了成功通过升级高级服装线和强调设计者的名字将其商店定位于价格质量策略上。“品牌”一词是个综合性的概念，它包含其他更狭义的理解。品牌即一个名称和（或）标志，用以识别一个销售者或销售集团的产品，并将之与竞争产品相区别。品牌名称由能够发音的单词、字母和(或)数字组成。品牌标志是品牌的一部分，它以符

45、号、图案或醒目的颜色、字体的形式出现。品牌标志通过视觉识别，但当人们仅仅读出品牌名称的时候，品牌标志并不能够被表达出来。Crest、Coors、Gillette都是品牌名称。AT&T由醒目的线条构成的地球以及Ralph Laurens Polo的马和骑手是品牌标志，而Green Giant（罐装冷冻菜蔬产品）和Arm&Hammer（面包苏打）既是品牌名称又是品牌标志。商标是销售者已经采用并且受到法律保护的品牌。商标不仅包括品牌标志，如许多人所认为的那样，也包括品牌名称。1946年的The Lanham Art法案允许厂商向联邦政府注册商标，以保护它们免受其他厂商的使用或误用。1989年生效的商

46、标法修订案（The Trademark Law Revision Act）旨在健全注册系统以维护美国厂商的利益。对于销售者来说，品牌可以被推广。当他们陈列于商店或出现在广告中时很容易被认出。品牌化减少了价格比较。因为在比较不同产品时，品牌是有必要考虑的另一因素，所以品牌化减少了仅仅依靠价格便作出购买决定的可能。品牌的知名度还会影响到购买服务和消费品的消费者的忠诚度。最后，品牌化可以区别商品（例如Sunkist牌鲜橙、 Morton牌食盐以及 Domino牌食糖）。三、定价定价是一个动态的过程，公司会为其所有产品设计一个定价结构。随着时间的推移，公司会改变价格结构，并将之调整到适应不同的消费者和形势的状态。公司应采用多样的价格调整策略来适应消费群体和具体情况的差别。一个是折扣和折让定价，及公司依批量