设计一个可以定位概要精编版

1、2021/8/32The story of the summer project 設計一個可以定位，描述以及辨認環境中所有物體及它們彼此間距離與關係的裝置，同時，這個裝置還要能不受路上的障礙物影響，從一個定點移動到另一個定點 加分題如果可以讓這個裝置產生意識經驗（如一般人看到某個場景時的感受），就可以加分2021/8/33 警告：這是個很困難的問題，即使世界頂尖的電腦科學家都還無法解決這個問題 1966, Marvin Minsky將發展一個電腦視覺系統當作暑假作業，assign給一個大學部同學做 HISTORY of AI 戳破了一般人認為知覺是很簡單的歷程的想法 1982, D Marr根

2、據對腦的知識，發展出一套視覺消息處理的模式 19911994, David van Essen發現恆河猴皮質區域有一半以上為視覺區（32個），且彼此密切相連結2021/8/34 提示提示 人與其他生物對這個問題都有很好的解決方案：人與其他生物對這個問題都有很好的解決方案：他們運用兩個富含感光物質的球狀偵測器來感他們運用兩個富含感光物質的球狀偵測器來感光，頭的兩側還有兩個具有可擺動纖毛的偵測光，頭的兩側還有兩個具有可擺動纖毛的偵測器，皮膚有各種形狀的壓力偵測器，還有化學器，皮膚有各種形狀的壓力偵測器，還有化學偵測器來偵測氣體與固體的氣味偵測器來偵測氣體與固體的氣味 偵測器所察覺的刺激還需要一個複

3、雜的電腦加偵測器所察覺的刺激還需要一個複雜的電腦加以分析，人類所使用的電腦是一個具有十以分析，人類所使用的電腦是一個具有十億個神經單元的裝置，我們雖然知道它們億個神經單元的裝置，我們雖然知道它們 彼彼此有密切聯繫，但還有很多未知之處此有密切聯繫，但還有很多未知之處 next 2021/8/35MODERN HISTORY of AI (before 1966) /AITopics/bbhist.html1956John McCarthy coined the term artificial intelligence as the topic of the D

4、artmouth Conference, the first conference devoted to the subject. Demonstration of the first running AI program, the Logic Theorist (LT) written by Allen Newell, J.C. Shaw and Herbert Simon (Carnegie Institute of Technology, now Carnegie Mellon University).1957The General Problem Solver (GPS) demons

5、trated by Newell, Shaw & Simon.1952-62Arthur Samuel (IBM) wrote the first game-playing program, for checkers, 2021/8/361962 First industrial robot company, Unimation, founded.1963 Thomas Evans program, ANALOGY, written as part of his PhD work at MIT, demonstrated that computers can solve the same an

6、alogy problems as are given on IQ tests. 1964 Danny Bobrows dissertation at MIT (tech.report #1 from MITs AI group, Project MAC), shows that computers can understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems correctly.2021/8/371965 J. Alan Robinson invented a mechanical proof proce

7、dure, the Resolution Method, which allowed programs to work efficiently with formal logic as a representation language. Joseph Weizenbaum (MIT) built ELIZA, an interactive program that carries on a dialogue in English on any topic. It was a popular toy at AI centers on the ARPA-net when a version th

8、at simulated the dialogue of a psychotherapist was programmed. http:/ back2021/8/38知覺是一個歷程知覺是一個歷程2021/8/39 刺激 遠端刺激(Distal stimulus) vs. 近端刺激(Proximal stimulus) 物體本身 vs.物體在接受器上的影像 環境刺激 (environmental stimulus) vs. 注意刺激(attended stimulus) vs. 受器上的刺激 (stimulus on the receptor)2021/8/310Figure 1.2 (a) W

9、e take the woods as the starting point for our description of the perceptual process. Everything in the woods is the environmental stimulus. (b) Ellen focuses on the moth, which becomes the attended stimulus.2021/8/311 轉導(transduction)：一種能量的形式轉變成另一種能量的形式 神經處理(Neural processing) Figure 1.3 (a) Transd

10、uction occurs when the receptors create electrical energy in response to the light. (b) Tranmission occurs as one neuron activates the next one. (c) This electrical energy is processed through networks of neurons.2021/8/312Transmission vs. ProcessingFigure 1.5 (a) Ellen has conscious perception of t

11、he moth. (b) She recognizes the moth. (c) She takes action by walking toward the tree to get a better view.2021/8/314知覺歷程知覺歷程(cont.)(cont.) 知覺：看到物體具有意識的感官經驗 辨認(Recognition):將物體分門別類，赋予意義 eg. 失認症 行動(Action)：知覺的結果，但也會創造新的知覺 知覺在演化上的功能可能不在獲得知覺經驗本身,而是在協助動物獵捕,避免被獵捕,控制運動方向etc. (Goodale, 1995) 知識(knowledge):

12、將儲存在記憶中的知識用在知覺與辨認 由上而下(top-down)或以知識為基礎（knowledge-based） vs. 由下而上(bottom-up)或以資料為基礎（data-based）的歷程2021/8/315Figure 1.6 Perception is determined by an interaction between bottom-up processing, which starts with the image of the receptors, and top-down processing, which brings the observers knowledge

13、into play. In this example, (a) the image of the moth on Ellens retina initiates bottom-up processing, and (b) her prior knowledge of moths contributes to top-down processing.2021/8/316Figure 1.5, page 8Rat-manCopyright 2002 Wadsworth Group. Wadsworth is an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division

14、 of Thomson LearningAdapted from “The Role of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets,” by B. R. Bugelski and D. A. Alampay, 1961, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15, 205-211. Copyright 1961 by the Canadian Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.2021/8/317Figure 1.7, page 10Rat-manCopy

15、right 2002 Wadsworth Group. Wadsworth is an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson LearningAdapted from “The Role of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets,” by B. R. Bugelski and D. A. Alampay, 1961, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15, 205-211. Copyright 1961 by the Canadian Psychol

16、ogical Association. Reprinted with permission.2021/8/318Figure 1.9, page 12Rat-manCopyright 2002 Wadsworth Group. Wadsworth is an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson LearningAdapted from “The Role of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets,” by B. R. Bugelski and D. A. Alampay, 196

17、1, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15, 205-211. Copyright 1961 by the Canadian Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.2021/8/319Figure 1.7, page 10Rat-manCopyright 2002 Wadsworth Group. Wadsworth is an imprint of the Wadsworth Group, a division of Thomson LearningAdapted from “The Role

18、 of Frequency in Developing Perceptual Sets,” by B. R. Bugelski and D. A. Alampay, 1961, Canadian Journal of Psychology, 15, 205-211. Copyright 1961 by the Canadian Psychological Association. Reprinted with permission.2021/8/320歷史及科學的根源歷史及科學的根源 哲學 亞里斯多德(384-322BC) ：所有外在環境的知識是透過感官經驗而獲得 五種感官:視、聽、味、嗅、觸

19、 經驗主義（十七世紀早期 洛克(1632-1704)：心智的內涵是感覺經驗的總和。 Berkeley (1685-1753)If a tree falls in the forest but no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound?2021/8/321 物理/生理學 在十八世紀，感覺/知覺的問題與生理學及物理學的問題不容易被區隔。 直到十九世紀早期，光學的研究仍與視知覺研究混為一談 何以產生知覺經驗是物理學的初始問題, 而光線 就是用以解釋視覺的一個概念 Thomas Young (1773-1829):物理學家，色彩知覺2021/8

20、/322 Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727)物理學家，色彩知覺 Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) 生理學家，色彩知覺 Ernst Mach (1838-1916)物理學家，視覺對比 Wilhem Wundt (1832-1920) 醫學與生理學 Sensation and perception as interdisciplinary science2021/8/323知覺研究知覺研究 分析層次(level of analysis) 心理物理(psychophysics)層次 知覺與環境物理刺激的關係 生理學(physiology)層次

21、刺激與生理歷程關係 知覺與生理歷程關係認知因認知因子子 (知識，期待知識，期待)2021/8/324PP - 心理物理學（心理物理學（psychophysics）PH1, PH2 生理學（生理學（physiology）2021/8/3252021/8/326知覺要如何測量？知覺要如何測量？ 對於刺激的知覺反應有幾種方式 描述 今天中午，學校餐廳有很多人 用現象學方法（phenomenological method） 知覺研究的開始 辨認 -那個拿著涼麵的人是小玉 刺激辨認分類作業2021/8/327 偵測 感受到幾乎無法察覺的刺激層面，嗅出教室中一絲新油漆的味道 絕對閾(absolute th

22、reshold) 偵測刺激所需的最小刺激能量 Gustav Fechner在19世紀發展出多種古典心理物理學方法, 有三種測量絕對閾的方式 極限法(method of limits) 上升/下降系列 取交叉點的平均值 CDROM demo 調整法(method of adjustment) 固定刺激法(method of constant stimuli)2021/8/328Figure 1.10 The results of an experiment to determine the threshold using the method of limits. The dashed lines indicate the crossover point for each sequence of stimuli. The threshold - the average of the crossover values - is 98.5 in this experiment.2021/8/329Figure 1.11 Results