国际贸易原理与实务资料整理

1、1.贸易分类Classification of international trade：Export trade, Import trade, Transit trade。Direct trade, Indirect trade, Entrepot trade。Visible trade, Invisible trade.2. ICC : International Chamber Of Commercial(国际商会)3.Mercantilism重商：refers to the school of economic thought that came into existence in Eu

2、rope during the period from 1500 to 1750. the trade theory that states that nations should accumulate financial wealth, usually in the form of gold, by encouraging exports and discouraging imports is called mercantilism. The main problem with mercantilism is that all countries engaged in export but

3、was restricted from import, another prevention from development of international trade.4. absolute of advantage绝对优势： Adam Smith developed the trade theory of absolute advantage in 1776. Smith stated that tariffs and quotas should not restrict international trade; it should be allowed to flow accordi

4、ng to market forces. Contrary to mercantilism Smith argued that a country should concentrate on production of goods in which it holds an absolute advantage. No country would then need to produce all the goods it consumed. According to the absolute advantage theory, international trade is a positive-

5、sum game, because there are gains for both countries to an exchange. 5. Comparative Advantage相对优势: first introduced by David Ricardo in 1817. The principle of comparative advantage states that a country should specialise in producing and exporting those products in which is has a comparative, or rel

6、ative cost, advantage compared with other countries and should import those goods in which it has a comparative disadvantage. Out of such specialisation, it is argued, will accrue greater benefit for all.6. Reasons for trade restrictions: a diversified economy to be less dependent on foreign countri

7、es both economically and politically. Protect vital industries (stability and economic development).Infant industry argument (a new industry needs to be protected until the labor force is trained, the production techniques are mastered and the operation becomes large enough to enjoy the economies of

8、 scale and to be able to compete in the market. Employment (protect domestic jobsPure political reasons7.tariffs关税：a tax, or duty, levied on a commodity when crosses the boundary of a customs area. According to the methods used in imposing import duties: Specific duty: A tariff levied as a fixed cha

9、rge for each unit of imported goods. (Disadvantage: Protective value varies inversely with the price of the import./Ad valorem duty: Levied as a constant percentage of the monetary value of 1 unit of the imported good./Mixed or compound duty: A duty placed on imported items, the amount of which is b

10、ased upon the above two duties./Alternative duty:Adopting either of these two duties According to different tariff rates: Preferential duties: applied according to its geographical source./generalized preferential duty: extended under the General System of Preferences./MFN duty: a duty for nations e

11、ntitled to most-favored-nation treatment or trading status/general duty: a non-MFNT tariff, applied to countries without MFNT agreement.According to special purposes: Countervailing duties (CVD): a tariff designed to “counter” the effects of the foreign export subsidy./Anti-dumping duties: a duty to

12、 imports to offset the eddects of dumping. 8. .forms of non-tariff barriersquantity control measures(non-automatic licence、quota、quantitative safeguard measures、prohibition、voluntary export restraints即VERs);price control measures(administrative pricing、variable charges、antidumping or countervailing

13、measures);para-tariff measures(customs surcharges、additional taxes and charges、internal taxes and charges levied on imports、decreed customs valuation);finance measures(advance payment requirements、multiple exchange rates、restrictive official foreign exchange allocation、prohibition of foreign exchang

14、e allocation、bank authorization、surrender requirement);anti-competitive measures(single channel for imports、compulsory national service);miscellaneous measures(to subsidize import-competing industries、government procurement policy、administrative classification、technical measures).9. dumping: Dumping

15、 is selling exports at a price that is too low, less than normal or fair value. Types: Predatory dumping: driving competitors out of business in the foreign country. Sporadic dumping: Foreign producers have temporary surplus that they export at whatever price can get. a) Cyclical dumping: during per

16、iods of recession a firm tends to lower its price to limit the decline in the quantity sold. b) Seasonal dumping: intended to sell off excess inventories of a product Persistent dumping: when a firm with market power uses price discrimination between markets to increase its total profit10.Unfair com

17、petition caused by: Social dumping: firms in developing nations with lower labor costs and poorer working conditions. Environmental dumping: a countrys lax environmental standards. Financial services dumping: a nations low requirements for bank capital/asset ratios. Cultural dumping: cultural barrie

18、rs aiding local firms. 11. Conditions of dumping: Such firm must has monopoly power in domestic market.Segmented markets (no buy in and sell at a profit between domestic market and foreign market). Different demand elasticity. 12. types of regional economic integration: Preferential Trade Area is a

19、trading bloc which gives preferential access to certain products from certain countries. This is done by reducing tariffs, but does not abolish them completely. Free Trade Area, all barriers to the trade of goods and services among member countries are removed. But each country is allowed to determi

20、ne its own trade policies with regard to nonmembers. Customs Union is one step further along the road to full economic and political integration. A customs union eliminates trade barriers between member countries and adopts a common external trade policy. Common Market has no barriers to trade betwe

21、en member countries, includes a common external trade policy, and allows factors of production to move freely between members. Economic Union involves the free flow of products and factors of production between member countries and adoption of common external trade policy, but it also requires a com

22、mon currency, harmonization of members tax rates and a common monetary policy, fiscal policy. 13. Static effects of regional economic integration: The effects that occur directly on the formation of the integration project. Trade creation: Economic integration creates trade that would not have exist

23、ed otherwise. Trade diversion: Economic integration diverts trade, away from a more efficient nonmember supplier to a less efficient member supplier. Administrative saving: Economic integration can lead to administrative saving by eliminating the need for government officials to monitor the goods an

24、d services that cross the borders. Collective terms of trade improving: If a bloc of countries imposes the tariff, the fall in demand for the imported goods will be substantial. Greater bargaining power in trade negotiation greater than they would have had negotiated on their own.14. Dynamic effects

25、 of regional economic integration: Increase competition and economies of scale. (Market size increases lower degree of monopoly; Some industries require large scale production; Internal economies of scale ( greater production); External economies of scale resulted from cheaper; capital, more highly

26、skilled labor, or superior technology) Stimulate greater investment in the member countries. e.g. massive U.S. investment occurred in the EC15. main differences between GATT and WTO: Nature :GATT ad hoc and provisional (never ratified in members parliament and contained no provisions for the creatio

27、n of an organization)。WTO permanent, has sound legal basis (members have ratified the WTO agreements Scope: GATT goods only。WTO goods, services and trade-related aspects of intellectual property rights.Approach: GATT selective basis (plurilateral)。WTO a single undertaking (multilateral) Dispute sett

28、lement : WTO: Specific time limits faster than the GATT。Has permanent appellate body to review findings by dispute settlement panel.【关系：the WTO replaced GATT as an international organization, but the GATT still exists as the WTOs umbrella tready for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay

29、 Round negotiations.】16. FOB=Free on board (named port of shipment)l In FOB, the seller is required to deliver goods on board a vessel that is to be designated by the buyer at a particular port.The sellers obligation under FOB:l 1) providing the goodsl 2) obtaining export license and other documents

30、l 3) carrying out all customs formalities for exportl 4) delivering the goods on board and notify the buyerl Notes for 4):l a. the vessel designated by buyerl b. at the particular portl c. within the stipulated time periodl 5) bearing all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until the time theyve

31、 passed the ships raill 6) providing the commercial documents, or its equivalent electronic message to buyerThe buyer obligation under FOB:l 1) obtaining import license or other official authorization l 2) carrying out all import customs formalitiesl 3) preparing carriage from the named port of ship

32、mentl Notes for 3):l a. paying the freightl b. informing the seller of the name and the date of arrival of the shipl 4) bearing all risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the time theyve passed the ships raill 5) taking delivery of the goods, making payment to the sellerVariations of FOB Terms

33、 变体l FOB Liner Terms: FOB 班轮条件l FOB Under Tackle: FOB吊钩下交货l FOB Stowed: FOB理舱费在内l FOB Trimmed: FOB平舱费在内l FOB Stowed and Trimmed: FOB理舱费和平舱 费在内17. CFR ：COST AND FREIGHT (named port of destination)成本加运费（指定目的港）l Under the CFR term, the seller must pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods

34、to the named port of destination.l Shipment advice(转船通知) A shipping advice containsl Difference with FOB：The seller instead of the buyer is responsible for making arrangement of the ship (chartering a ship or booking a space)The seller s obligation:1) Be responsible for booking the shipping space, d

35、eliver the goods on board the vessel at the port of shipment on the date or within the period stipulated.2) Give the buyer the shipping advice at once after shipment, so that the buyer can arrange for insurance 3) bear all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have passed t

36、he ships rail at the port of shipment.4) clear the goods for export and provide export license or other official authorization for the exportation of the goods.The buyers obligations:1) bear all risks or damage to the goods from the time they have passed the ships rail at the port of shipment.2) arr

37、ange for insurance and pay the insurance premium.3) accept the documents when tendered by the seller, if they are in conformity with the contract of sale, and pay the price as provided in the contract.4)accept delivery of goods when they have been delivered at the named port of destination and bear

38、all charges as well as the cost of carrying out the customs formalities payable upon importation of the goods and, where necessary, for their transit through another country.Special issues under CFRl Shipping advice(装船通知)：A shipping advice contains the vessel name, the voyage number, the sailing dat

39、e and the date of loading.l The purpose: 1)to inform the buyer or its agent to make preparation for taking delivery of goods 2) to inform the buyer to effect the insuranceThe variations of CFRl CFR Liner Terms (CFR班轮条件 )l CFR Landed (CFR卸至码头)l CFR Ex Tackle (CFR吊钩下交货)l CFR Ex Ships Hold (CFR舱底交货)18.

40、 CIF (named port of destination) l COST, INSURANCE AND FREIGHTthe seller must pay the costs and freight necessary to bring the goods to a named port of destination, and must also procure marine insurance against the buyers risk of loss of or damage to the goods during the carriage.Compared with CFRl

41、 CIF is the same as CFR except that the seller is responsible for effecting insurance, paying the premium(保险费).l （the insurance required under a CIF contract has to cover minimum conditions）In general, CIF involves the exporter in three contracts:Contract of sale; Contract of insurance; Contract of

42、transportation.The sellers obligations under CIFl 1) providing the goods l 2) clearing the goods for exportl 3) obtaining export license or other official authorization for the exportation of the goodsl 4) chartering a ship or booking a spacel 5) delivering the goods on board the vessel at the port

43、of shipment on the date or within the period stipulated and notifying the buyerl 6) bearing all risks of loss of or damage to the goods until such time as they have passed the ships rail at the port of shipmentl 7) arranging for an insurance and paying the costs of freight and insurance8) Providing

44、the buyer with relative documents including the insurance policyBuyers obligations under CIFl 1) bearing al risks of loss of or damage to the goods from the time they have passed the ships rail at the port of shipmentl 2) accepting the documents when tendered by the seller, if they are in conformity

45、 with the contract of sale, and pay the price as provided in the contractl 3) taking delivery of the goods when they have been delivered at the named port of destination and bearing all charges of unloading goodsl 4) clearing the goods for importl 5) carrying out customs formalities for importation

46、of goodsVariations of CIFl CIF Liner Terms:l CIF Landed:l CIF Ex-Ships Hold:The use of CIFl CIF is preferred by buyerl 1) it means they have little to do with the goods until the goods arrive at the port of destination in their country.l 2) it allows buyers to compare prices from suppliers around th

47、e world without having to take into consideration differing freight rates, since the seller pays the freight and insurance.l Seller “like” CIF too:under the pressure from their government, seller is required to use domestic carriers and insurers.19.比较FOB、CFR、CIF(区别与共同点)commonalities：a.Under all the

48、three terms, the place of delivery or place of transferring risks is the same, that is ,when the goods pass the ships rail at the port of shipment；b.Under all the three terms, the seller is responsible for carrying out export clearance while the buyer is responsible for carrying out import clearance

49、.Differences：a.Under FOB, the buyer is liable for both contracting carriage and taking out marine insurance；b.Under CFR, the seller is liable for contracting carriage while the buyer is liable for taking out marine insurance；c. the seller is liable for both contracting carriage and taking out marine

50、 insurance.20.为什么CFR中，卖方及时发出装船通知是重要的?As under CFR,the buyer must take risks for a period of carriage during which the buyer has no means of controlling or limiting those risks.The carrier used, the costs incurred for carriage and the timing of the carriage are all under the sellers control. The ship

51、ping advice sent plays an important role, which is to inform the buyer to take out insurance promptly. If ,however,the seller fails to do this ,it will have to bear the risks of loss of or damage to the goods incurred in transit.21. FCA= free carrier (named place)Sellers Obligations: 1. Responsibili

52、ties 【A. Deliver the goods B. Clear the goods for exportC. Deliver the goods to the carrier named by the buyer D. Notify the buyer immediatelyE. Deliver the documents of equivalent electronic data】2. ExpensesExpenses before the goods have been delivered to the carrier.3. RisksUpon delivery to the ca

53、rrier.If delivery occurs at the sellers premises, the seller is responsible for loading.If delivery occurs at any other place, the seller is not responsible for unloading.22.CPT（carriage paid tonamed place of destination） CPT=FCA+F(国外运费)23.CIP（carriage and insurance paid tonamed place of destination

54、） CIP=CPT+I（国外保险费）24.methods of expressing quality of commodity in the contract: sale as seen。Sale by sample (counter sample, sealed, reference)。Sale by description (sale by specifications, by grade, standard, brand and trade mark, name of origin, descriptions and illustrations)25.quantity: the syst

55、ems of weights and measures (metric system, international system of units, British system, American system) quantity units (metrical units, including weight, length, area; numbers including some customary units such as dozen, gross.) methods ofr calculating weight (net weight, gross weight, conditio

56、ned weight, theoretical weight)26.modes of transportOcean Transport (Advantage: easy passage; large capacity; low cost/Disadvantage: slow; vulnerable to bad weather; less punctual )l Types of Shipping Services: 1) Liner Transport（班轮运输）A passenger or cargo vessel that operates over a regular route ac

57、cording to an advertised time-table. 【Features: fixed route, ports, schedule and relatively fixed freight. loading and unloading charges included in freight. simple procedures and ideal for cargo of small quantity.】 2) Charter Transport 租船运输. The practice of paying money to a shipping company to use

58、 their boats. 【Much cheaper than that of the liner. Shippers may choose direct route. Widely used in transporting bulk cargoes.】【voyage charter. The charter or hiring of a vessel and crew for a single voyage. Time charter: The charter of a ship for a definite period of time. 】Rail Transport (Advantages: Large capacity (second to ocean transport);Relatively high speed; Economical; Relatively punctual; Less prone to interruptions by poor weather/Disadvantages: Confined to ra