独立写作2正文段落扩展PPT

1、托福独立写作正文段落扩展正文段落扩展今日内容全班：2:00-4:30 p.m. 1）托福独立写作正文段落概述2）列举法段落扩展3）分类法段落扩展4）限时段落写作练习（10 minutes）单独学员：4:35-4:50 p.m. 托福基础写作一补课目标1）了解英语段落的典型结构2 2）按照某种逻辑顺序将主题句扩展成段落）按照某种逻辑顺序将主题句扩展成段落3 3）措辞和句法富有亮点）措辞和句法富有亮点段落主题句段落主题句主题句解释主题句解释论证句论证句言简意赅，高言简意赅，高度概括度概括主题句更清晰主题句更清晰而通俗的解释而通俗的解释根据主题句的根据主题句的特点，选择某特点，选择某种逻辑思路进种逻

2、辑思路进行扩展行扩展好段落的特征好段落的特征A typical example:A typical example:Topic: Advantages of getting a good educationTopic: Advantages of getting a good education(5 minutes of free writing)Finding its merits Getting a good education has many advantages. First, a good education means personal enrichment. A well-ed

3、ucated person is more knowledgeable and civilized. His life is also more meaningful. Second, with a good educational background, one has more opportunities to find a better job. Finally, armed with what education offers, one is likely to make a greater contribution to society and play a role in help

4、ing society to advance more rapidly. Logic Map of the Paragraph主题句（段落只统帅）：getting a good education advantages. 论证句1（统帅帐下大将1）：personal enrichment 论证句2（统帅帐下大将2）：personal enrichment论证句3（统帅帐下大将3）：greater contribution to societyPurpose Topic SentenceSupporting Sentences 一、段落的统一性一个段落应该只说明一个问题，或一个问题的某一个段落应

5、该只说明一个问题，或一个问题的某一方面；应该只叙述一件事情，一方面；应该只叙述一件事情， 或一件事情的某或一件事情的某一个阶段。一个阶段。也就是说，一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一也就是说，一个段落内的各个句子必须从属于一个中心，任何游离于中心思想以外的句子都是不个中心，任何游离于中心思想以外的句子都是不可取的。可取的。 一个好的段落应该具有统一性。统一性就是一个中心一个好的段落应该具有统一性。统一性就是一个中心思想统领整个段落。每个细节都应支持主题句，不应思想统领整个段落。每个细节都应支持主题句，不应有无关的细节。为了支持主题，要尽可能多地提供细有无关的细节。为了支持主题，要尽可能多地提供细

6、节，但又要避免滥用细节。节，但又要避免滥用细节。下图是一个有统一性的段落的结构图下图是一个有统一性的段落的结构图。主题句主题句(topic sentence） _Supporting Sentence 1 _ Supporting Sentence 2 _ Supporting Sentence 3 _ Supporting Sentence 4例文：例文：Millions of years ago, Australia was linked to Asia by a land bridge. Then an earthquake caused the land bridge to sink.

7、 The sea rushed in, and Australia became an island. Later, this island became a British colony. Many animals that once wandered back and forth across the land bridge were left in Australia. And kangaroos were among them. Though they were killed off by large animals in other places, they were about t

8、o survive in Australia.这一段讲的是远古时期的澳大利亚，当时连人类都没有，但然这一段讲的是远古时期的澳大利亚，当时连人类都没有，但然不必提它后来沦为英国的殖民地的事了。此句应删掉。不必提它后来沦为英国的殖民地的事了。此句应删掉。how to write the topic sentenceThree points: (1)a topic sentence must be a complete sentence, rather than a sentence fragment.(2) a topic sentence comes in two parts, topic wo

9、rdstopic words (indicating object to be discussed) and expression of thesisexpression of thesis (indicating the particular aspect of the thesis). E.g. The Women Movement has had several effects on the English language.(3)a topic sentence can be neither too general nor too specific. how to write the

10、topic sentence Position of the topic sentence: Topic sentence can be put in the beginning.二、段落的完整性一个段落的主题思想靠发展句来实现，如果只有一个段落的主题思想靠发展句来实现，如果只有主题句而没有发展句来进一步交待和充实，就不主题句而没有发展句来进一步交待和充实，就不能构成一个完整的段落。能构成一个完整的段落。 In my English study, I have many difficulties. My first difficulty is that my vocabulary is not

11、 large. The second difficulty I have is that I can not write well. The third difficulty is that my listening comprehension is not good enough. Now I have a plan to study English well.主题句：主题句：I have many difficulties. 发展句：具体说明困难发展句：具体说明困难 My first difficulty; The second difficulty ; The third difficu

12、lty .结尾句：结尾句： Now I have a plan 篇章结构：分析：本段落看似完整，有头有尾。但由于缺少实质内容即对学英语的困难的原因的分析，文章显得空洞无物；此外，结尾句讲到了plan,具体内容有没有交待，给人留下话好像没说完的感觉。修改如下：三、段落的连贯性连贯性包括连贯性包括意连意连内在的逻辑型；和内在的逻辑型；和形连形连使使用过渡词语、过渡句等方式。两者常常不可分用过渡词语、过渡句等方式。两者常常不可分割。只有形连而没有意连，句子之间没有内在割。只有形连而没有意连，句子之间没有内在的有机联系；反之，只有意连而没有形连，有的有机联系；反之，只有意连而没有形连，有时行文就不够流

13、畅。时行文就不够流畅。如何取得连贯性的建议如何取得连贯性的建议1）使用同一时态）使用同一时态如果随意而毫无理由地改变时态，那么不管作如果随意而毫无理由地改变时态，那么不管作者连句的技巧多么高超，段落也不可能取得连者连句的技巧多么高超，段落也不可能取得连贯性。在写作时，可以使用现在时或过去时。贯性。在写作时，可以使用现在时或过去时。选用哪一种取决于作者处理材料的方式。选用哪一种取决于作者处理材料的方式。2)使用某种逻辑顺序使用某种逻辑顺序常用的逻辑顺序有：常用的逻辑顺序有： 1）时间顺序）时间顺序2）空间顺序）空间顺序3）重要性顺序）重要性顺序4）熟悉度顺序）熟悉度顺序3) 使用连接成分使用连接

14、成分使用某些连接词和短语，重复某些关键词，可使用某些连接词和短语，重复某些关键词，可以大大增加段落的连贯性。某些以大大增加段落的连贯性。某些连接词连接词、短语短语和和关键词关键词可以起粘着物的作用，把各部分连接可以起粘着物的作用，把各部分连接起来，使句子间的关系更加清楚。起来，使句子间的关系更加清楚。连接成分主要有以下三种：连接成分主要有以下三种：a连接词语b代词: 代词用于提醒读者注意其先行词，以此把有关的部分连接起来。c重复关键词语示范段落示范段落 Until recently daydreaming was viewed as a waste of time Or it was cons

15、idered an unhealthy escape from real life and its duties But now some people are taking a fresh look at daydreaming And it may be that more people are suffering from a lack of daydreaming than are suffering from too much of it连接词连接词连接词连接词段落扩展通用模式四步法四步法第一步：段落主题句/论据（言简意赅）第二步：主题句扩展解释（成熟严密）第三步：逻辑扩展（如举例）

16、（泛/精：理论，数据，常识，名人经历、个人轶事）第四步：总结（来自举例，呼应首句）举例1Topic: Nowadays, people put too much emphasis on personal appearance and fashion. Theme: Disagree (it has benefits) 1 1 To begin with, having good appearance can be valuable to an individual when he is looking for a job. 22 Many times, the way that a perso

17、n looks and dresses can help him get hired. After all, an interviewers first impression is often based upon a persons looks. So, if an individual ignores his appearance and fashion, he might not be successful during the interview process. 33 My older brother had an experience just like this. A few m

18、onths after he got his current job, his boss told my brother that he had been competing against a women for the job. However, because my brother looked more professional, his boss decided to hire him, so my brother got the job. 44 Taking special care of ones appearance can certainly help ones career

19、. 11 Next, if a person emphasizes his appearance, he can improve his self-esteem. 22 Many people suffer from low esteem and a lack of self-confidence. However, people who have good bodies and wear fashionable clothes often feel better about themselves. Their appearance actually gives them more confi

20、dence. 33 Again, my older brother is an excellent example. He was always overweight and very shy in middle school. He also had few friends and was not very popular. However, he started paying more attention to his shell and almost immediately became a more confident, outgoing person. This change mad

21、e him more popular at school too, so he started feeling better about himself. 44 It seems clear to me that people are happier when they take care of their appearance and are confident in how they work. 举例2Topic: It is better to take a trip by oneself than to take a group tour with guidance. Theme: T

22、aking a group tour 1 1 First, group tours plan travelers entire itineraries. 22 Because their trip has already been arranged, people do not have to worry about where they are going or how they are getting there. They can simply relax, enjoy their trip, and not get stressed out about anything. 33 For

23、 example, my family once took a package tour to China. The travel agency arranged everything. It took care of the hotel reservations, transportation, and sightseeing. My family did not have to worry about anything. We just looked at the schedule the travel agency had provided and followed it. thanks

24、 to the travel agency, we could just relax and enjoy our entire trip. This made things easier on my father since he did not have to worry every single minute about where we would go next. All in all, we had a great trip. 44 Group tours take the anxiety of daily planning out of traveling and let trav

25、elers enjoy their vacations without any stress. Time to have a tryTopic 1: It is better to take the most difficult and challenging classes in university or at college even if means that you probably will not get top grades in them. Theme: challengingOutlining Learn more and develop better study skil

26、ls 1)Achieve more as a students and individual 11 First of all, I can learn more and develop better study skills if I take difficult and challenging classes. 22 In those classes, the professors will be much more demanding and expect the best from their students. 33 For example, I once took a math cl

27、ass with a teacher who was infamous for being really tough. She definitely lived up to her reputation. I had loads of homework every night, and the class was a struggle at times. However, I got used to the heavy course load, and, while tough, the teacher was fair, and I learned more in that math cla

28、ss than in any other one I had ever taken. 44 Taking challenging courses is definitely a good way to learn more. 11 Moreover, by setting higher goals for myself, I can achieve more as a student and individual than I would if I set low goals or none at all. 22 Competing tough courses regardless of my

29、 final grades will increase my confidence and experience. 33 Last year, I enrolled in a French language course for the first time. I was nervous at first, and the course was demanding. But, in time, I developed a lot of confidence in this class. This year, I am continuing with French, and it is beco

30、ming much easier for me because of my experience. To me, it is the experience and confidence that counts, not getting a perfect grade. 44 Taking harder courses will clearly outweigh the easy ones. Have another try Topic: A teachers ability to relate well with his or her students is more important th

31、an the ability to give them knowledge. Theme: Agree, relate well with students 11 These days, teachers have to know not only how to get their students attention but also how to keep a hold of it in order to teach them. 22 The world has changed very much in the past decade, and students these days ar

32、e not interested in the same things they were ten or twenty years ago. 33 For example, we live in an age dominated by electronics, particularly computers. Most students my age know how to use all of the latest gadgets. Unfortunately, many teachers are technologically inept, so they have difficulty r

33、elating to students that way. Most of them never incorporate technology into their classes. Instead, they just lecture, which makes their classes boring. Some of them, however, use computers for things like PowerPoint presentations, which really helps to get most students attention. 44 Teachers that

34、 can relate to their students in areas like technology are definitely more able to keep their students attention. Practice for consolidation Topic: It is more important to use land for human needs such as farming, housing, and industry than to save it for endangered animals. Theme: save land for hum

35、ans 1 1 To begin with, humans need to use all of the land they can gain access to. 22 As the planets population continues to grow, people need to move onto land that was previously occupied only by animals. 33 In many countries, there are large numbers of cities with over a million people. In fact,

36、some cities, like Tokyo, Seoul, and New York, have populations of over ten million. These cities are overcrowded, so many people need to move out of them and onto new lands. While they may be moving to lands that are inhabited by endangered animals, the welfare of humans is much more important than

37、that of a few endangered animals. 44 People have to take care of Earths expanding population, and the best way to enable people to live more comfortably is to move onto lands inhabited by animals. 逻辑扩展方法1）罗列发2）分类法3）定义法4）举例法5）因果法I. I.罗列法罗列法ListingListing： The importance of taking outdoor exercises ca

38、nnot be The importance of taking outdoor exercises cannot be overemphasized.overemphasized. To begin with, To begin with, In addition, In addition, Finally, Finally, Example: Example: This book will have a major impact on both politics This book will have a major impact on both politics and economic

39、s in China. and economics in China. In politics, In politics, In economics,In economics, Example: Example: Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a new language.new language. For one thing, For one thing, For anot

40、her, For another, 逻辑词连接逻辑词连接第一（首先）：第一（首先）：First and foremost, First and foremost, To begin with, to start with, To begin with, to start with, in the first place,in the first place,For one thing, For one thing, 第二（其次）：第二（其次）：in addition, in addition, furthermore, furthermore, moreover, moreover, what

41、 is more, what is more, 第三（最后）：第三（最后）：Last but not least, more importantlyLast but not least, more importantly逻辑连接词逻辑连接词必须一起出现的短语：必须一起出现的短语：In the first place, In the first place, In the second place, In the second place, In the third place,In the third place,For one thing, For one thing, For anothe

42、r, For another, 逻辑连接词逻辑连接词但是（转折）：但是（转折）：otherwise, nevertheless, otherwise, nevertheless, 同时：同时：meanwhile=in the meantime meanwhile=in the meantime 因此：因此：as a result, accordingly,as a result, accordingly,consequently, therefore, consequently, therefore, 逻辑连接词逻辑连接词总之：总之： to sum up, all in all, genera

43、lly speaking, in generalto sum up, all in all, generally speaking, in general结论结论: : to conclude, in conclusion, to conclude, in conclusion, in short, in short, Practice Topic: Staying up late causes trouble (3 points; 80 words)Have a try Advantages/drawbacks of online-shopping II.II.分类法分类法Classific

44、ationClassification表示分类的常用词语表示分类的常用词语动词：动词： be divided into, be classified into, be grouped into, fall intobe divided into, be classified into, be grouped into, fall into 名词：名词： kind, sort, category, group, class, type kind, sort, category, group, class, type 分类法的段落主题句：分类法的段落主题句：e.g. e.g. 总体来说，根据地理位

45、置的不同，酒店可以分为总体来说，根据地理位置的不同，酒店可以分为四大类。四大类。总的来说：总的来说：Generally speaking Generally speaking 不同的地理位置：不同的地理位置：different locations different locations 酒店：酒店：hotelhotel总体来说，根据地理位置的不同，酒店可以分为总体来说，根据地理位置的不同，酒店可以分为四大类。四大类。Generally speaking, hotels can Generally speaking, hotels can be classified intobe classif

46、ied into 4 4 groups based on their different locations. groups based on their different locations. e.g. e.g. 中国父母对独生子女的态度不同，可以分为三类。中国父母对独生子女的态度不同，可以分为三类。 独生子女：独生子女：only child in the family only child in the family 不同态度：不同态度：different attitudes different attitudes Dictator, democracy, spoiling Dictat

47、or, democracy, spoiling 2 2、中国父母对独生子女的态度不同，可以分为三、中国父母对独生子女的态度不同，可以分为三类。类。 In China, parents can In China, parents can be divided intobe divided into 3 3 categories categories in in light oflight of their different attitudes on the only child in their different attitudes on the only child in the fami

48、ly.the family. Practice Topic: Classification of college students Knowledge-oriented Ability-oriented Fun-oriented Have a try Classification of friends III.III.定义法定义法 DefinitionDefinition正式定义：正式定义： form of form of is a species of which/who is a species of which/who kind of kind ofe.g. e.g. 1 1、牙医是经过

49、专业训练去护理人类牙齿的医生。、牙医是经过专业训练去护理人类牙齿的医生。 牙医：牙医：dentistdentist护理：护理：treattreat经过专业训练：经过专业训练：be professionally be professionally trained trained 牙医是经过专业训练去护理人类牙齿的医生。牙医是经过专业训练去护理人类牙齿的医生。 A dentist A dentist is a kind ofis a kind of doctor doctor who who is professionally is professionally trained to treat

50、peoples teeth. trained to treat peoples teeth. 铜是一种容易成形的软性铜是一种容易成形的软性 金属。金属。 铜：铜：coppercopper金属：金属：metalmetal 铜是一种容易成形的软性金铜是一种容易成形的软性金 属。属。Copper Copper is a sort ofis a sort of soft metal soft metal whichwhich is easily is easily shaped. shaped. 学术定义：学术定义： is a kind of science which is a kind of sc

51、ience which 是一种是一种的科学。的科学。地理学可以定义为研究地球表面的科学。地理学可以定义为研究地球表面的科学。地理学：地理学：geography geography 研究：研究：studystudy地球表面：地球表面：the surface of the earththe surface of the earth 地理学可以定义为研究地球表面的地理学可以定义为研究地球表面的科学。科学。Geography Geography is a kind of science whichis a kind of science which studies the studies the su

52、rface of the earth. surface of the earth. 语言学可以定义为研究人类语言的科学。语言学可以定义为研究人类语言的科学。语言学：语言学：linguisticslinguistics人类的语言：人类的语言：the language of human race the language of human race 语言学可以定义为研究人类语言的科学。语言学可以定义为研究人类语言的科学。 Linguistics Linguistics is a kind of science whichis a kind of science which studies the

53、studies the language of human race. language of human race. 注意定义之后，往往要和其他论证方法相结合，如举例，如列举等。Practice Topic: What is success?Career, family, morality IV. IV. 举例法举例法Examples Examples 例证的常用表达：例证的常用表达：As an illustration, As an illustration, A case in point is thatA case in point is thatTo take as an examp

54、le, To take as an example, To consideras an example, To consideras an example, 例证的常用表达：例证的常用表达：For example,For example,For instance, For instance, As the present situation shows in As the present situation shows in our country, our country, 数据或事例支持数据或事例支持1 1）表示）表示“科学研究表明科学研究表明”According to a researc

55、h, According to a research, (Scientific) research shows/indicates/suggests(Scientific) research shows/indicates/suggests数据或事例支持数据或事例支持2) 2) 表示表示“科学家认为科学家认为”According to scientists on According to scientists on 某学科某学科, Scientists on , Scientists on 某学科某学科 believe thatbelieve that地理学：地理学：Geography Geo

56、graphy 化学：化学：Chemistry Chemistry 数学：数学：Mathematics Mathematics 医学：医学：Medicine Medicine 生物学：生物学：Biology Biology 物理学：物理学：PhysicsPhysics建筑学：建筑学：ArchitectureArchitecture航空学：航空学：AeronauticsAeronautics文学：文学：Literature Literature 教育：教育：EducationEducation；PedagogicsPedagogics法学：法学：LawLaw经济：经济：Economics Econ

57、omics 政治：政治：Politics Politics 宗教：宗教：Religion Religion 音乐：音乐：Music Music 传媒：传媒：Mass Media Mass Media 旅游：旅游：Tourism Tourism 哲学：哲学：PhilosophyPhilosophy数据或事例支持数据或事例支持3 3）表示）表示“数据表明数据表明”According to statisticsAccording to statisticsStatistics show/indicate/suggest thatStatistics show/indicate/suggest tha

58、tStatistics show thatStatistics show that the the tropical rain foreststropical rain forests（热带雨（热带雨林）林）of Amazon River were cut down at a rate of 14 of Amazon River were cut down at a rate of 14 million hectares(million hectares(公顷公顷) each year.) each year.数据或事例支持数据或事例支持4 4）表示）表示“调查表明调查表明” Surveys

59、(A recent survey) show (indicate, suggest) that Surveys (A recent survey) show (indicate, suggest) that数据或事例支持数据或事例支持5) 5)引导事实引导事实It is a well-known fact thatIt is a well-known fact thatIt is (widely) believed thatIt is (widely) believed thatIt is a widely-held belief thatIt is a widely-held belief

60、thatIt is true thatIt is true thatThere is no denying thatThere is no denying thate.g.e.g.不可否认的是，互联网是人类历史上的不可否认的是，互联网是人类历史上的一项伟大发明。一项伟大发明。e.g.e.g.There is no denying thatThere is no denying that Internet is a great Internet is a great invention in mankinds history.invention in mankinds history.数据或事例