自考00830现代语言学串讲

1、笔记依据目录Chapter 1 Introduction 1. What is linguistics? 1.1 Definition 1.2 The scope of linguistics 1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive 1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic 1.3.3 Speech and writing 1.3.4 Langue and parole 1.3.5 Competence and performance 2. What

2、 is language? 2.1 Definitions of language 2.2 Design features Study questions Chapter 2 Phonology 1. The phonic medium of language 2. Phonetics 2.1 What is phonetics? 2.2 Organs of speech 2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions 2.4 Classification of English sp

3、eech sounds 2.4.1 Classification of English consonants 2.4.2 Classification of English vowels 3. Phonology 3.1 Phonology and phonetics 3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophone 3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair 3.4 Some rules in phonology 3.4.1 Sequential rules 3.4.2 Assimi

4、lation rules 3.4.3 Deletion rule 3.5 Suprasegmental featuresstress, tone, intonation 3.5.1 Stress 3.5.2 Tone 3.5.3 Intonation Study questions Chapter 3 Morphology 1. Definition 2. Morpheme 2.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language 2.2 Types of morphemes 2.2.1 Free morphemes 2.2.2 Bound

5、morphemes 2.2.3 Morphological rules 3. Compounding 3.1 Types of compound words 3.2 Features of compounds Study questions Chapter 4 Syntax 1.Syntax as a system of rules 2. Sentence structure 2.1 The basic components of a sentence 2.2 Types of sentences 2.2.1 The simple sentence 2.2.2 The coordinate s

6、entence 2.2.3 The complex sentence 2.3 The linear and hierarchical structures of sentences 2.3.1 The linear word order of a sentence 2.3.2 The hierarchical structure of a sentence 2.3.3 Tree diagrams of sentence structure 3. Syntactic categories 3.1 Lexical categories 3.2 Phrasal categories 4. Gramm

7、atical relations 5. Combinational rules 5.1 Phrase structure rules 5.2 The recursiveness of phrase structure rules 5.3 X-bar theory 6. Syntactic movement and movement rules 6.1 NP- movement and WH- movement 6.2 Other types of movement 6.3 D-structure and S-structure 6.4 Move a general movement rule

8、7. Toward a theory of universal grammar 7.1 General principles of Universal Grammar 7.2 The parameters of Universal Grammar Study questions Chapter 5 Semantics 1. What is semantics? 2. Some views concerning the study of meaning 2.1 The naming theory 2.2 The conceptualist view 2.3 Contextualism 2.4 B

9、ehaviorism 3. Lexical meaning 3.1 Sense and reference 3.2 Major sense relations 3.2.1 Synonymy 3.2.2 Polysemy 3.2.3 Homonymy 3.2.4 Hyponymy 3.2.5 Antonymy 4. Sense relations between sentences 5. Analysis of meaning 5.1 Componential analysisa way to analyze lexical meaning 5.2 Predication analysisa w

10、ay to analyze sentence meaning Study questions Chapter 6 Pragmatics 1. What is pragmatics? 1.1 Definition 1.2 Pragmatics vs. semantics 1.3 Context 1.4 Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 2. Speech act theory 3. Principle of conversation Study questions Chapter 7 Historical Linguistics 1. The purp

11、ose and significance of the historical study of language 2. The nature of language change 3. The historical development of English 3.1 Major periods in the history of English 3.1.1 Old English 3.1.2 Middle English 3.1.3 Modern English 3.2 linguistic change of English 3.2.1 Sound change 3.2.2 Morphol

12、ogical change 3.2.3 Syntactic change 3.2.4 Lexical change 3.2.5 Semantic change 4. Language family 4.1 Classifying genetically related languages 4.2 The Indo-English language family 5. The causes of language change 5.1 Sound assimilation 5.2 Rule simplification and regularization 5.3 Internal borrow

13、ing 5.4 Elaboration 5.5 Sociological triggers 5.6 Cultural transmission 5.7 Childrens approximation toward the adult grammar Study questions Chapter 8 Sociolinguistics 1. Language variation 1.1 Speech community 1.2 Speech variety 1.3 Regional variation 1.4 Social variation 1.5 Stylistic variation 1.

14、6 Idiolectal variation 2. Standard and nonstandard language 2.1 Standard and nonstandard language 2.2 Lingua francas 2.3 Pidgins 2.4 Creoles 3. Diglossia and bilingualism 3.1 Diglossia 3.2 Bilingualism 4. Ethnic dialect 4.1 Black English, a case study of ethnic dialect 4.2 The social environment of

15、Black English 5. Social dialect 5.1 Education varieties 5.2 Age varieties 5.3 Gender varieties 5.4 Register varieties 5.5 Address terms 5.6 Slang 5.7 Linguistic taboo 5.8 Euphemism Study questions Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 1. The biological foundations of language 1.1 The case of Phineas Gage 1.2

16、The human brain 1.3 Brain lateralization 2. Linguistic lateralization 2.1 Left hemispheric dominance for language 2.2 Dichotic listening research 3. The language centers 3.1 Brocas area 3.2 Wernickes area 3.3 The angular gyrus 3.4 Language perception, comprehension and production 4. The critical per

17、iod for language acquisition 4.1 The critical period hypothesis 4.2 The case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age 5. Language and thought 5.1 Early views on language and thought 5.2 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 5.3 Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 5.3.1 Words and mean

18、ing 5.3.2 Grammatical structure 5.3.3 Translation 5.3.4 Second language acquisition 5.3.5 Language and world views 5.4 Understanding the relation of language and thought 5.4.1 Major functions of language 5.4.2 The development and blending of language 5.4.3 Thinking without language 5.4.4 Language as

19、 a conventional coding system to express thought 5.4.5 The ways in which language affects thought Study questions Chapter 10 Language Acquisition 1. First language acquisition 1.1 The biological basis of language acquisition 1.2 Language acquisition as the acquisition of grammatical rules 1.3 The ro

20、le of input and interaction 1.4 The role of instruction 1.5 The role of correction and reinforcement 1.6 The role of imitation 2. Stages of first language acquisition 2.1 The prelinguistic stage 2.2 The one-word stage 2.3 The two-word stage 2.4 The multiword stage 3. The development of the grammatic

21、al system 3.1 The development of phonology 3.2 The development of syntax 3.3 The development of morphology 3.4 The development of vocabulary and semantics 4. Second language acquisition 4.1 Acquisition vs. learning 4.2 Transfer and interference 4.3 Error Analysis and the natural route of SLA develop

22、ment 4.4 Interlanguage and fossilization 4.5 The role of input 4.6 The role of formal instruction 4.7 Individual learner factors 4.7.1 The optimum age for second language acquisition 4.7.2 Motivation 4.7.3 Acculturation 4.7.4 Personality Study questions Suggested Answers to Study Questions An Englis

23、h-Chinese GlossaryA Detailed Note for Modern LinguisticsChapter 1: Introduction1.Define the following terms:1).Linguistics:It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 2).General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.3).Applied linguistics: In a

24、narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems su

25、ch as the recovery of speech ability.4).Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is a synchronic study.5).Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language

26、 is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeares time is a diachronic study.6).Language competence: The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-gener

27、ative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.7).Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ideal language users knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. 8).Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech comm

28、unity; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently.9).Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; p

29、arole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.10).Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A

30、good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.12).Productivity: Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.13).Duality: Language is a system, which consists

31、of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.14).Displacement: language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away place

32、s. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.15).Cultural transmission: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.

33、16).Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication2.Explain the following definition of linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.Linguistics investigates not any particular language, but language

34、s in general. Linguistic study is scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic(可靠的，真实的) language data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reached until after the linguist has done the following three things: observing the way language is actually used, formulating som

35、e hypotheses, and testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.3.What are the branches of linguistics? What does each of them study? (语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguistics mainly involves the following branches: 1)General linguistics, which is the study of language as a

36、whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study 2)Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication 3)Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communicat

37、ion 4)Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words 5)Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences 6)Semantics, which is the study of meaning in lan¬guage. 7)Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in the

38、context of use 8)Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society 9)Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. 10)Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; in a

39、nar¬row sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. 11)Other related branches are anthropological linguistics(人类语言学), neurological linguistics（神经语言学）, mathematical lingu

40、istics（数学语言学）, and computational linguistics（计算机语言学）. 4.What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？) Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow.

41、But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not. 5.Is mode

42、rn linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性） or diachronic（历时性）? Why? (The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unle

43、ss the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6.Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why?Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons:First, s

44、peech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form.Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their nat

45、ive language.7.Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communi

46、ty, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, b

47、ut parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1

48、950s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.) Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences

49、that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as str

50、ess, embarrassment, etc Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9.How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance? And what is

51、 their difference?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study.They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is

52、 a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.10.What characteristics of language do you think should be included in a good, comprehensive definition of language?Language is a syste

53、m of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.First of all, language is a system, i.e. elements of language are combined according to rules.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it refers to.Third, language is voca

54、l because the primary medium is sound for all languages.The term “human” is meant to specify that language is human-specific.11.What features of human language have been specified by Charles Hockett to show that it is essentially different from any animal communication system? 人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？ 1.Arbit

55、rariness（任意性）: (课本答案：a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of) It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. Although language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. Non-arbitrary words make up only a small percentage of the total number. The arb

56、itrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2.Productivity（创造性）: （课本答案：creativity: animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send）Language is productive or creative in that it makes possible t

57、he con¬struction and interpretation of an infinitely large number of sentences, including those they have never said or heard before. 3.Duality（二重性）: （课本答案：a feature totally lacking in any animal communication）It means that language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two l

58、evels, one of sounds at the lower level and the other of meanings at the higher level. At the lower or the basic level, there is the structure of individual and meaningless sounds, which can be grouped into meaningful units at the higher level. This duality of structure or dou¬ble articulation of language enables its users to talk about anything within their kn