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1、精选课件语言学复习精选课件1. Invitations to LinguisticsWhat is language?What are the design features of language?What is arbitrariness?What is duality?What is creativity?What is displacement?精选课件7. The origin of language.8. What functions does language have?9. What is Linguistics?10. What are the main branches o

2、f linguistics?11. Important distinctions in Liguistics.1、Descriptive & Prescriptive (描写与规定)(描写与规定) 2、Synchronic L & Diachronic L (共时共时L与历时与历时L) 3、 Langue & Parole(语言与言语)(语言与言语) 4、Competence & Performance(语言能力与语言应用)(语言能力与语言应用)精选课件Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used fo

3、r human communication.Language is a system.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic(内在的内在的) connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.” Romeo and Julier精选课件“Design features” here refer to the defining pr

4、operties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement, cultural transmission.精选课件2. Speech Sounds1. What is phonetics?2. What are the three main branches of phonetics?3. Classificat

5、ion of English Consonants.4. Classification of Vowels.5. What is phonology?6. Whats the difference between phonetics and phonology?7. What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?精选课件What is phonetics? The science studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds

6、 used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.精选课件 1Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学发音语音学Phonetics 2Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学声学语音学 3Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学听觉语音学精选课件1. Articulatory Phonetics : the study of the production of speech sounds. 精选课件2. Acoustic Ph

7、onetics :is the study of physical properties of the sounds produced in speech. 精选课件3. Auditory Phonetics :is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. 精选课件Stop (Plosive) 塞音(爆破音)塞音(爆破音) b p t d k gNasal 鼻音鼻音 m n Fricative 擦音擦音 f v s z Approximant 中通音中通音 j r wLateral 边通音边通音 lTrill 颤音颤音 r Tap and

8、 Flap 触音触音 Affricate 塞擦音塞擦音 t d 精选课件Bilabial 双唇音双唇音 p b mLabiodental 唇齿音唇齿音 f vDental 齿音齿音 Alveolar 齿龈音齿龈音 t d n r s z lPostalveolar 后齿龈音后齿龈音 d tRetroflex 卷舌音卷舌音 rPalatal 腭音腭音 jVelar 软腭音软腭音 k g Uvular 小舌音小舌音 rPharyngeal 咽音咽音Glottal 声门音声门音精选课件精选课件“Phonology” is the study of sound systemsthe invention

9、 of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns.音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音位学研究的是一种语言的整个语音系统及其分布或布局状况,包括音系统及其分布或布局状况,包括某一特定语言里的语音或音位分布某一特定语言里的语音或音位分布和结合的规则或规律。和结合的规则或规律。精选课件Phonetics studies how speech sounds are made, transmitted and received.Phonology is the study of the sound systems

10、 of languages.精选课件1) Phone(音素)(音素): a phonetic unit, the smallest part of phonetics. p t k heg. tip; pit; spit 语音属于言语语音属于言语2) Phoneme(音位):(音位):phonological unit 是音位学单位,音位属于语言。是音位学单位,音位属于语言。/ph p=/ 3)Allophone(音位变体)(音位变体): The different phones representing a phoneme are allophones./pit/; / tip/; /spi

11、t/ 精选课件3. From Morpheme to PhraseWhat is morphology?What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?What is a root? What is a stem? What is an affix?What are open classes? What are closed classes?What is word? 精选课件“Morphology” is the branch of grammar that

12、studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.“Morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided.An allomorph refers to a member of a set of morphs, which represent one morpheme.精选课件Free Morphemes

13、: independent of other plete meaning; used as free grammatical units in sentencesman, earth, wind, car, angerBound Morphemes: cannot occur as separate words recollection re/collect/ion精选课件Root(词根)(词根) : is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.Stem(

14、词干词干): may consist of a single root morpheme or plus one or more affixational morphemes.Affixes(词缀)(词缀): are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.精选课件 Closed class words (封闭类词)(封闭类词) Open-class words (开放类词)(开放类词) 1) Closed words : their membership is fixed

15、or limited. E.g. pro. prep. conj. art. etc. 2) Open-class words: whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. e.g. n. v. adj. adv. E.g. regarding / with regard to ; throughout, in spite of精选课件Word: is a minimal f r e e f o r m o f a language that has a g ive n s o u n d a n d meaning. 精选课

16、件4. From Word to Text1. What is syntax?2. What is category? What is syntactic category?3. What is IC analysis? 4. What are endocentric and exocentric constructions?5. What is concord? 精选课件1. What is Syntax? Syn :“together ” Tax:“to arrange”Syntax: It studies the rules governing the way words are com

17、bined to form sentences in a language. In short: It studies the formation of sentences. 精选课件2. CategoryCategory refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. Syntactic category: 能在句子中起相同作用能在句子中起

18、相同作用的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同的词构成相同的句法范畴。句法范畴不同于词类,两个属于不同词类的词可能属于于词类,两个属于不同词类的词可能属于同一句法范畴。同一句法范畴。精选课件3. What is Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis? The relation between a sentence and its component elements is a Construction(结构体)(结构体) and its Constituents(成分)(成分). To analyze their relations is IC. To show

19、 how small constituents in sentences go together to form large constituents.精选课件With Bloomfields IC Analysis: The boy kicked the ball The boy kicked the ball精选课件 S NP VP Det N V NP Det N The boy kicked the ballWith Chomskys Tree Diagram analysis 精选课件4. Endocentric and Exocentric constructions:向向心结构和

20、离心结构心结构和离心结构 P78 Endocentric Construction: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. A word or a group of words serves as a definable “center.”某一成分决定了整体短语的性质某一成分决定了整体短语的性质two pretty girls精选课件Exocentric Construction: opposite of endocentric const

21、ruction, refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole; there is no definable centre or head inside the group.整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短语的性质。整体短语中的成分无法决定整体短语的性质。 It includes basic sentence, PP, (V+O) construction, and connective cons

22、truction (be+complement). 精选课件Concord : also known as Agreement, the form of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. There is a book on the shelf.There are some books on the shelf.We are studying English.He studies English.精选课件5. Meanin

23、g1. What is semantics?2. What is referential theory?3. What is ideational theory?4. What is the Semantic Triangle?5. How many kinds of meaning did Leech find and study?6. What is sense relation?7. What is entailment? What is presupposition? 8. What is componential analysis? 精选课件Semantics: is general

24、ly considered to be the study of meaning in language.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.精选课件Frege 为弥补指称论之不足,提出了观为弥补指称论之不足,提出了观念论,认为语言符号和符号所指对象念论,认为语言符号和符号所指对象之间不存在直接的指称关系,它是经之间不存在直接的指称关系,它是经过涵义(过涵义(Se

25、nse)这一过渡层面使得语)这一过渡层面使得语言与所指对象发生联系的,意义不仅言与所指对象发生联系的,意义不仅仅在于与所指对象之间的关系,也包仅在于与所指对象之间的关系,也包括词语本身的涵义。括词语本身的涵义。Ideational Theory 观念论观念论精选课件Ogden & Richards(1923): Semantic Triangle (Triangle of Significance) P36 Concept(Sense) 概念(涵义)概念(涵义) -word (symbol) thing (referent) 符号形式符号形式 指称对象指称对象精选课件G . Leech

26、 recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics.1. Conceptual meaning 概念意义概念意义2. Connotative meaning 内涵意义内涵意义3. Social meaning 社会意义社会意义4. Affective meaning 感情意义感情意义5. Reflected meaning 反射意义反射意义6. Collocative meaning 搭配意义搭配意义7. Thematic meaning 主题意义主题意义精选课件Sense relation: A word which is related to o

27、ther words in sense within a language system itself. 词与词之间不同的涵义关系词与词之间不同的涵义关系精选课件 Polysemy Homonymy Sense Relation Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy精选课件1. Polysemy (一词多义一词多义) :is the common feature peculiar to all natural languages. 精选课件2. Homonymy: The words different in meaning but either identical both

28、in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. 精选课件 Perfect homonym Homonymy Homographs Homophones 精选课件3. Synonymy (同义关系)(同义关系): words different in sound and spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.精选课件4. Antonymy (反义关系)(反义关系): as words which are opposite in meaning.

29、Complementaries Types of antonyms Contraries Converses精选课件V. Hyponymy (上下义关系)(上下义关系): deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. The meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. 精选课件Entailment 蕴涵关系:蕴涵关系:Entailment is an important sense relation or logical

30、 relation between sentences. a. John killed Bill. b. Bill died. a. I saw a boy. b. I saw a child.(3) a. John is a bachelor. b. John is an unmarried.精选课件Presupposition 预设预设下句为上句的预设。下句为上句的预设。 甲:当今法国国王是个秃子。甲:当今法国国王是个秃子。 乙:当今法国有位国王。乙:当今法国有位国王。精选课件Componential Analysis(语义成语义成分分析分分析):by breaking down the

31、sense of a word into its minimal components , digging them out and classifying them, a n d s h o w i n g t h e i r relationships is termed componential analysis. 精选课件father, mother,son,daughter包包含了一种两实体间关系的词含了一种两实体间关系的词 HUMAN MALE ADULTMan + + +Woman + +Boy + + Girl + 精选课件6. Language and Cognition1.

32、 What is Cognition?2. What are the main basic elements of cognition?3. What is the core principle of Cognitive Linguistics?4. What is iconicity?5. What is prototype theory?6. What is image schema?7. What is metaphor? What is metonymy?8. What is salience?精选课件What is Cognition?Cognition:“认识认识”和和“认知认知”

33、英汉词英汉词典典“认识认识”指客观事体及其规律在人脑中的反映。指客观事体及其规律在人脑中的反映。感感+理理辞海辞海(1989,1999):认知就是认识,指人):认知就是认识,指人类认识客观事物、获得知识的活动,包括知觉、类认识客观事物、获得知识的活动,包括知觉、记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题解决等过程。记忆、学习、言语、思维和问题解决等过程。现代汉语词典(第现代汉语词典(第5版)版):通过思维活动认:通过思维活动认识、了解。识、了解。精选课件认知最基本的两个要素:动觉图式和基本范畴:通过动觉图式和基本范畴:通过人的身体与客观外界互动而人的身体与客观外界互动而产生的,可被直接理解,其产生的,可被直

34、接理解,其他概念和范畴则主要是通过他概念和范畴则主要是通过隐喻认知机制而被简洁认知隐喻认知机制而被简洁认知的。的。精选课件认知语言学的核心原则语言也是一种认知活动,是对客观世语言也是一种认知活动,是对客观世界进行互动体验和认知加工的结果。界进行互动体验和认知加工的结果。现实现实 认知认知 语言语言精选课件象似性语言符号象似于人们的认知方式,且在其作用下一定程度地象似于现实世界,语符形式在音、形或结构上与其所表达的意义之间存在映照相似的现象。该描写不仅反映了象似性具有普遍性,存在于语言的不同层面,而且还为象似性理论提供了一条可应用的系统研究线索。音义象似音义象似 形义象似形义象似 距离象似性距离

35、象似性 数量象似性数量象似性 顺序象似性顺序象似性精选课件句法象似性句法象似性距离象似性距离象似性John Haiman (1983)象似动因与经济象似动因与经济动因动因一文中对距离相似性(一文中对距离相似性(the iconicity of distance)描述为:)描述为:The linguistic between expressions corresponds to the conceptual distance between them.(词句中语符之间的距离象(词句中语符之间的距离象似于它们所表示的概念距离。)似于它们所表示的概念距离。)精选课件give sb. sth. 与与

36、give sth. to sb. 的距离象的距离象似性似性give you a book give a book to youhelp sb. (to) do 结构与距离象似性结构与距离象似性He helped me finish the meal.He helped me to finish the meal.This medicine will help you to sleep. 精选课件apple,treeapple treeapple trees语,文语,文语文语文语和文语和文精选课件顺序象似性顺序象似性语言单位排列顺序象似于时间顺序语言单位排列顺序象似于时间顺序和文化观念和文化观念

37、Jacobson (1965) :The order of clauses corresponds in general to the order of events, as in “I came, I saw, I conquered.”(一般来一般来说,分句的顺序象似于事件的顺序,说,分句的顺序象似于事件的顺序,例如:例如:“我来,我看,我征服我来,我看,我征服”。)精选课件59英语的语序与汉语的语序英语的语序与汉语的语序常常是不对应的,这是由常常是不对应的,这是由于英语的语序与实际生活中的时间顺序常是不对于英语的语序与实际生活中的时间顺序常是不对应的。例:应的。例:他他 从从 成都成都

38、坐坐 火火 车车 经经 遂宁遂宁 到到 重庆重庆。 He came to Chongqing from Chengdu through Suining by train. 精选课件 原型范畴原型范畴(范畴,即划分类别。男人(范畴,即划分类别。男人/ /女人女人, ,好好/ /一般一般/ /差)差)精选课件 意象图式意象图式 认知语言学的核心原则为认知语言学的核心原则为“现实现实 认知语言认知语言”,这是一个,这是一个十分笼统的概括,其中的十分笼统的概括,其中的“认知认知”包括很多细微过程,我们可将包括很多细微过程,我们可将其详述为:其详述为: 现现 实实 互动体验互动体验 意象图式意象图式 范

39、畴范畴 概念概念 意义意义 语语 言言 从上图可见,意象图式是在互动体验的基础上形成的,它又是从上图可见,意象图式是在互动体验的基础上形成的,它又是形成范畴、概念和意义的基础。因此意象图式在认知语言学中形成范畴、概念和意义的基础。因此意象图式在认知语言学中具有举足轻重的地位。具有举足轻重的地位。 精选课件 语言的突显观语言的突显观精选课件 语言的突显观认为,语言的突显观认为,语言结构中信息的选择语言结构中信息的选择与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。与安排是由信息的突出程度决定的。如:如:The car crashed into the tree. The tree was hit by the

40、car.精选课件 台上坐着主席团。台上坐着主席团。 主席团坐在台上。主席团坐在台上。 笑声充满晚会。笑声充满晚会。 晚会充满笑声。晚会充满笑声。 The picture is above the blackboard. The picture is above the blackboard. The blackboard is below the picture. The blackboard is below the picture.精选课件7. Language in Use1. What is pragmatics?2. What is the relation between prag

41、matics and semantics?3. What is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning?4. What is the speech act theory?5. What is performative and constative?6. What is a locution, an illocution and a perlocution?7. What is the cooperative principle?精选课件什么是语用学语用学,即研究语言使用的学科。语用学,即研究语言使用的学科。 语

42、用学,研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰语用学,研究在不同语境中话语意义的恰当地表达和准确地理解,寻找并确立使话语当地表达和准确地理解,寻找并确立使话语意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原意义得以恰当地表达和准确地理解的基本原则和准则。则和准则。 语用学,研究话语在使用中的语境意义,语用学,研究话语在使用中的语境意义,或话语在特定语境条件下的交际意义,特别或话语在特定语境条件下的交际意义,特别研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何准确地理研究在不同的语言交际环境下如何准确地理解语言和恰当地运用语言。解语言和恰当地运用语言。精选课件语义学与语用学的联系和区别:语义学与语用学的联系和区别: 二者都是对意义的研

43、究,但它们是二者都是对意义的研究,但它们是在两个不同的层面上对意义进行的研究:在两个不同的层面上对意义进行的研究:语义学是对抽象语言能力的研究,语用语义学是对抽象语言能力的研究,语用学是对言语行为(学是对言语行为(即通过言语实施的行即通过言语实施的行为,是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能为,是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用力的运用)的研究。二者之间的差别大)的研究。二者之间的差别大体上就是体上就是意义和用法意义和用法之间的差别。然而之间的差别。然而不应该忘记言语行为是语言能力的具体不应该忘记言语行为是语言能力的具体体现。体现。 因此我们赞成利奇采用的观点:因此我们赞成利奇采用的观点:“语义学

44、和语用学是互不相同但又互相语义学和语用学是互不相同但又互相补充的研究领域。补充的研究领域。”精选课件句子与话语句子与话语 句子:是一个句法学、语义学的概念,句子:是一个句法学、语义学的概念,是脱离语境条件的抽象的单位,多用于指抽是脱离语境条件的抽象的单位,多用于指抽象的语法结构或脱离语境条件的结构组合,象的语法结构或脱离语境条件的结构组合,也就是说也就是说, ,它是按照一定的语法规则组合起来它是按照一定的语法规则组合起来的、具有意义的语言单位,其意义就是词汇的、具有意义的语言单位,其意义就是词汇意义和语法意义的组合,在任何条件下它的意义和语法意义的组合,在任何条件下它的意义都是恒定的。意义都是

45、恒定的。 话语:是一个语用学概念,话语就是特话语:是一个语用学概念,话语就是特定语境条件中所使用的句子、词或词语,体定语境条件中所使用的句子、词或词语,体现的是特定的语境意义。现的是特定的语境意义。精选课件 言语行为理论言语行为理论 是英国约翰是英国约翰兰素兰素奥斯汀奥斯汀19551955年提出的。他认年提出的。他认为:为了传递信息,人们需要使用话语,但话语为:为了传递信息,人们需要使用话语,但话语并非都是为了传递字面意义或表达话语本身的语并非都是为了传递字面意义或表达话语本身的语义信息,在很多时候说话人都是在义信息,在很多时候说话人都是在“通过言辞行通过言辞行事事”(doing things

46、 with wordsdoing things with words)。比如,实施)。比如,实施许诺、发出警告或威胁、表示请求、表达命令、许诺、发出警告或威胁、表示请求、表达命令、进行批评等。进行批评等。 在一定的语境条件下通过话语实施的行为,在一定的语境条件下通过话语实施的行为,被称为被称为“言语行为言语行为”(speech actsspeech acts),是说话人),是说话人跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。跟听话人对抽象的语言能力的运用。精选课件I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth.I bequeath my match to my brother.I

47、 bet you six pences it will rain tomorrow.I promise to finish it in time.I apologize.I declare the meeting open.I warn you that the bull will charge.精选课件Locutionary act (发话行为)普通意义普通意义我们说话的时候,要移动发音器官,发出我们说话的时候,要移动发音器官,发出按照一定方式组织起来,并被赋予了一定按照一定方式组织起来,并被赋予了一定意义的声音。在这个意义上,当有人说意义的声音。在这个意义上,当有人说“Morning!”时

48、,我们可以问:时,我们可以问:“他做他做了什么?了什么?”,而不问,而不问“他说了什么?他说了什么?”。答案可以是他发出了一个声音,单词或者答案可以是他发出了一个声音,单词或者句子句子“Morning”。精选课件Illocutionary act(行事行为)我们说话时,不只是说出一些具有一定意义我们说话时,不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位,而且说明我们的说话目的,我的语言单位,而且说明我们的说话目的,我们希望怎样被理解,也就是们希望怎样被理解,也就是Austin说的具有说的具有一 定 的 语 力 (一 定 的 语 力 ( f o r c e ) 。 我 们 可 以 说) 。 我 们 可 以 说“Morning!”有问候的语力,或者说,它有问候的语力,或者说,它应该被理解成问候。语力,或者叫行事语力应该被理解成问候。语力,或者叫行事语力(illocutionary force),像但与说话者意义),像但与说话者意义、语境意义或附加意义,可以译成汉语的、语境意义或附加意义,可以译成汉语的“言外之意言外之意”。精选课件Perlocutionary act(取效行为) 说话可以看成做事的第三种意义,说话可以看成做事的第三种意义,涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通涉及话语对听话人产生的效果。通过告诉听话人某事,说话人可以改过告诉听话人某事,说话人可

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