(完整word版)英语语言学概论--整理.docx

1、Chapter 1 Language 语言1. Design feature (识别特征)refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.2. Productivity (能产性)refers to the ability that people have in making and comprehending indefinitely large quantities of sentences in their nat

2、ive language.3. arbitrariness(任意'性)Arbitrariness refers to the phenomenon that there is no motivated relationshipbetween a Unguis tic form and its meaning.4. symbol (符号) Symbol refers to something such as an object, word, or sound that represents something else by association or convention.5. di

3、screteness (离散性 ) Discreteness refers to the phenomenon that the sounds in a language are meaningiully distinct.6. displacement (不受时空限制的特性) Displacement refers to the fact that human language can be used to talk about things that are not in the immediate situations of its users.7. duality of structu

4、re(结构二重'性 )The organization of language into two le ve Is, one of sounds, the other ofmeaning, is known as duality of structure.8. culture transmission (文化传播)Culture transmission refers to the fact that language is passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning, rather t

5、han by inheritance.9. interchangeability(互换'性)Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and areceiver of messages.1. What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has captured the main features of languag

6、e.First, language is a system.Second, language is arbitrary in the sense.The third feature of language is symbolic nature.2. What are the design features of language?Language has seven design features as following:1) Productivity.2) Discreteness.3) Displacement4) Arbitrariness.5) Cultural transmissi

7、on6) Duality of structure.7) Interchangeability.3. Why do we say language is a system?Because elements of language are combined according to rules, and every language contains a set of rules.By system, the recurring patterns or arrangements or the particular ways or designs in which a language opera

8、tes. And the sounds, the words and the sentences are used in fixed patterns that speaker of a language can understand each other.4. ( Function of language .)According to Halliday, what are the initial ftinctions of childrenlanguage? And what are the three Junctional components of adult language?1. H

9、alliday uses the following terms to refer to the initial functions of children s' language:1) Instrumental tunction. 工具功能2) Regulatory tunction. 调节功能3) Representational function.表现功能4) Interactional Junction. 互动功能5) Personal function.自指性功能6) Heuristic Junction. 启爰功能 osbQtq'krh7) Imaginative

10、function.想象功能n. Adult language has three ftinctional components as following:1) Interpersonal components.人际2) Ideational components. 概念3) Textual components. 语篇Chapter 2 Linguistics 语言学1. general linguistics and descriptive linguistics（普通语言学与描写语言学）The former deals with languagein general whereas the

11、 latter is concerned with one particular language.2. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics（共时语言学与历时语言学）Diachronic linguistics tracesthe historical developmentof the languageand records the changes that have taken place in it betweensuccessive points in time. And synchroniclinguistics pre

12、sents an account of language as it is at someparticular point in time.3. theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics（理论语 言学与应用语言学）The former copes withlanguages with a view to establishing a theory of their structures and functions whereas the latter is concerned with the application of the conc

13、epts and findings of linguis tics to all sorts of practical tasks.4. microlinguistics and macrolinguistics（微观语言学与宏观语言学）The former studies only the structure oflanguage system whereas the latter deals with everything that is re la te d to languages.5. langue and parole （语言与言语）The former refers to the

14、 abstract linguistics system shared by all the members of a speech community whereas the latter refers to the concrete act of speaking in actual situation by an individual speaker.6. competence and performance （语言能力与语言运用）The former is one ' s knowledge of all the linguistic regulation systems wh

15、ereas the latter is the use of language in concrete situation.7. speech and writing （口头语与书面语）Speech is the spoken form of language whereas writing is writte n codes, gives language newscope.一一8. linguistics behavior potential and actual linguistic behavior （语言行为潜势与实际语言行为）Peopleactually says on a cer

16、tain occasion to a certa in person is actual linguistics behavior. And each of possible linguistic items that he could have said is linguistic behavior potential.9. syntagmatic relation and paradigmatic relation （横组合关系与纵聚合关系）The former describes thehorizontal dimension of a language while the latter

17、 describes the vertical dimension of a language.10. verbal communication and non-verbal communication（言语交际与言语交际 ）Usual use of language asa means of transmitting information is called verbal communication. The ways we convey meaning without using language is called non-verbal communication.1. How doe

18、s John Lyons classiiy linguistics?According to John Lyons, the fie Id of linguistics as a whole can be divided into several subfields as following:1） General linguistics and descriptive linguistics.2） Synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics.3） Theoretical linguistics and applied linguistic

19、s.4） Microlinguistics and macrolinguistics.2. Explain the three principles by which the linguist is guided: consistency, adequacy and simplicity.1） Consis tency means that there should be no contradictions between different parts of the theory and the description.2） Adequacy means that the theory mu

20、st be broad enough in scope to ofler significant generalizations.3） Simplicity requires us to be as brief and economic as possible.3. What are the sub-branches of linguistics within the language system?Within the language system there are six sub-branches as following:1） Phonetics. 语音学 is a study of

21、 speech sounds of all human languages.2） Phonology. 音位学 studies about the sounds and sound patterns of a speaker' s native language.3） Morphology. 形态学 studies about how a word is formed.4） Syntax. 句法学 studies about whether a sentence is grammatical or not.5） Semantics. 语 义学 studies about the mea

22、ning of language, including meaning of words and meaning of sentences.6） Pragmatics. 语用学 The scope of language:Linguistics is referred to as a scientific study of language. The scientific process of linguistic study:It involves four stages: collecting data, forming a hypothesis,testing the hypothesi

23、s and drawing conclusions.5Chapter 3 Phonetics 语音学1. articulatory phonetics （发音语音学 ）The study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2. acoustic phonetics （声学语音学）The study of thephysical properties and of the transmission of speechsounds is called acoustic phonetics

24、.3. auditory phonetics （听觉语音学 ）The study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. consonant （辅音）Consonant is a speech sound where the air fonn the language is either completely blocked, or partially blocked, or where the opening between the speech organs is so narrow

25、 that the air escapes with audible friction.5. vowel （元音）is defined as a speech sound in which the air from the lungs is not blocked in any way and is pronounced with vocal-cord vibration.6. bilabia Is （双唇音）Bilabials means that consonants for which the flow of air is stopped or restricted by the two

26、lips, p b m w7. aftricates（塞擦音）The sound produced by stopping the airstream and then immediately re leasing it slowly iscalled aflricates. t A d Y tr dr8. glottis （声）Glottis is the space between the vocal cords.9. rounded vowel （圆唇元音）Rounded vowel is defined as the vowel sound pronounced by the lips

27、 forming a circular opening, u: u OB O10. diphthongs （双元音） Diphthongs are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions.eiai Oi Quau11. triphthongs（三合元音）Triphthongs are those which are produced by moving from one vowel position toanother and then rapidly and con

28、tinuously to a third one. ei Qai QOiQ Qu Qau Q12. lax vowels （松元音）According to distinction of long and short vowels, vowels are classified tense voweIs and lax vowels. All the long vowels are tense vowe Is but of the short vowelsje is a tense vowel as well, and the rest short vowels are lax voweIs.1

29、. How are consonants classified in terms of diflcrent criteria?The consonants in English can be described in terms of four dimensions.1） The position of the soft palate.2） The presence or the absence of vocal-cord vibration.3） The place of articulation.4） The manner of articulation.2. How are vowels

30、 classified in terms of different criteria?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors.1） The state of the velum2） The position of the tongue.3） The openness of the mouth.4） The shape of the lips.5） The length of the vowels.6） The tension of the muscles at pharynx.3. What are the three su

31、b-branches of phonetics? How do they differ from each other?Phonetics has three sub-branches as following:1） Articulatory phonetics is the study of how speech organs produce the sounds is called articulatory phonetics.2） Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties and of the transmiss

32、ion of speech sounds is called acoustic phonetics.3） Auditory phonetics is the study of the way hearers perceive speech sounds is called auditory phonetics.4. What are the commonly used phonetic features for consonants and vowels respectively?1. The frequently used phonetic features for consonants i

33、nclude the following:1） Voiced.2） Nasal.3） Consonantal.4） Vocalic.5） Continuant.6） Anterior.7） Coronal.8） Aspirated.IL The most common phonetic features for vowels include the following:1) High.2) Low.3) Front.4) Back.5) Rounded.6) Tense.1. phonemes （音位）Phonemes are minimal dis tinctive units in the

34、 sound system of a language.2. allophones（音位变体）Allophones are the phonetic variants and realizations of a particular phoneme.3. phones （单音）The smallest identifiable phonetic unit found in a stream of speech is called a phone.4. minimal pair （最小对立体 ）Minimal pair means words which difter from each oth

35、er only by one sound.5. contrastive distribution（对比分布）Iftwo or more sounds can occur in the same environment and thesubstitution of one sound for another brings about a change of meaning, they are said to be in contrastive distribution.6. complementary dis tribution（互补分布）If two or more sounds never

36、appear in the same environment ,thenthey are said to be in complementary distribution.7. free variation （自由变异）When two sounds can appear in the same environment and the substitution of one for the other does not cause any change in meaning, then they are said to be in free variation.8. distinctive f

37、eatures （区别性特征）A distinctive feature is a feature which distinguishes one phoneme from another.9. suprasegmental features （超切分特征）The distinctive （phonological） features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.10. tone languages （声调语言）Tone languages a

38、re those which use pitch to contrast meaning at word leve 1.11. intonation languages （语调语言）Intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence leve 1.12. juncture （连音）Juncture refers to the phonetic boundary features which may demarcate grammatical units

39、.1. What are the dilTerences between English phonetics and English phonology?1） Phonetics is the study of the production, perception, and physical properties of speech sounds, while phonology attempts to account for how they are combined, organized, and convey meaning in particular languages.2） Phon

40、etics is the study of the actual sounds while phonology is concerned with a more abstract description of speech sounds and tries to describe the regularities of sound patterns.2. Give examples to illustrate the relationship between phonemes, phones and allophones.When we hear pit,tip,spit,etc, the s

41、imilar phones we have heard are /p/. And /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes in English, while ph and p are allophones.3. How can we decide a minimal pair or a minimal set?A minimal pair should meet three conditions:1） The two forms are different in meaning.2） The two forms are different in one sound

42、segment.3） The difterent sounds occur in the same position of the two strings.4. Use examples to explain the three types of distribution.1） Contrastive distribution . Sounds m in met and n in net are in contrastive distribution because substituting m for n will result in a change of meaning.2） Compl

43、ementary distribution . The aspirated plosive ph and the unaspirated plosive p are in complementary distribution because the former occurs either initially in a word or initially in a stressed syllable while the latter never occurs in such environments.3） Free variation . In English, the word“ direc

44、t ” may be pronounce in two ways: /di' re kt/ and /diathe two difierent sounds /i/ and /ai/ can be said to be in free variation.5. What' s the difference between segmental features and suprasegmental features? What are the suprasegmental features in English?1. 1） Distinctive features, which

45、are used to distinguish one phoneme from another and thus have efleet on one sound segment, are referred to as segmental features.2） The distinctive （phonological） features which apply to groups larger than the single segment are known as suprasegmental features.3） Suprasegmental features may have e

46、ffect on more than one sound segment. They may apply to a string of several sounds.n.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, intonation and juncture.6.What' s the diflerence between tone languages and intonation language?Tone languages are those which use pitch to contrast meaning

47、 at word level while intonation languages are those which use pitch to distinguish meaning at phrase level or sentence level7. What' s the diHerence between phonetic transcriptions and phonemic transcriptions?The former was meant to symbolize all possible speech sounds, including even the most m

48、inute shades of pronunciation, while the latter was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one wordfrom another in a given language.7Chapter 5 Morphology 形态学1. morphemes （语素）Morphemes are the minimal meaningful units in the grammatical system of a language.allomorphs （语素变体）

49、Allomorphs are the realizations of a particular morpheme.morphs （形素）Morphs are the realizations of morphemes in general and are the actual forms used to realize morphemes.2. roots （词根）Roots is defined as the most important part of a word that carries the principal meaning.affixes （词缀）Affixes are mor

50、phemes that lexically depend on roots and do not convey the fundamental meaning of words.free morphemes （自 由语素）Free morphemes are those which can exist as individual words.bound moiphemes（粘着语素）Bound morphemes are those which cannot occur on their own as separatewords.3. inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）re

51、fer to affixes that serve to indicate grammatical relations, but do not change its part of speech.derivational affixes （派生词缀）refer to affixes that are added to words in order to change its grammatical category or its meaning.4. empty morph （空语子）Empty morph means a morph which has form but no meaning

52、.zero morph（零语子）Zero morph refers to a morph which has meaning but no form.5. IC Analysis（直接成分4,析 ）IC analysis is the analysis to analyze a linguistic expression （both a word and asentence） into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.6. immediate constituents（直接成分）A immediate constituent is

53、 any one of the largest grammatical units thatconstitute a construction. Immediate constituents are often further reducible.ultimate constituents（最后成4） Ultimate constituents are those grammatically irreducible units thatconstitute constructions.7. morphological rules （形态学规则 ）The principles that dete

54、rmine how morphemes are combined into new words are said to be morphological rules.8. word-formation process （构词法）Word-formation process mean the rule-governed processesof formingnew words on the basis of already existing linguistic resources.1. What is IC Analysis?IC analysis is the analysis to ana

55、lyze a linguistic expression （both a word and a sentence） into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.2. How are morphemes classified?1） Semantically speaking, morphemes are grouped into two categories: root morphemes and affixational morphemes.2） Structurally speaking, they are divided int

56、o two types: free morphemes and bound morphemes.3. Exp la in the interre lations between semantic and structural classifications of morphemes.a） All free morphemes are roots but not all roots are free morphemes.b） All affixes are bound morphemes, but not all bound morphemes are affixes.4. What'

57、s the dilference between an empty morph and a zero morph?a） Empty morph means a morph that has form but no meaning.b） Zero morph refers to a morph that has meaning but no form.5. Explain the difterences between inflectional and derivational affixes in term of both function and position.a） Functional

58、ly:i .Inflectional affixes sever to mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.ii .Inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.b） In term of position:i .Inflectional affixes are suffixes while der