专八语言学知识点

1、英语语言学概论重、难点提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义:语言的基本特征(任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性;语言的功能(寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为;语言的起源(神授说,人造说,进化说等。第二章语言学语言学定义;研究语言的四大原则(穷尽、一致、简洁、客观;语言学的基本概念(口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为;普通语言学的分支(语音、音位、语法、句法、语义;语言学的应用(语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学等。第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称;

2、英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法;语音学的定义;发音语音学;听觉语音学;声学语音学;元音及辅音的分类;严式与宽式标音等。第四章音位学音位理论;最小对立体;自由变异;互补分布;语音的相似性;区别性特征;超语段音位学;音节;重音(词重音、句子重音、音高和语调等。第五章词法学词法的定义;曲折词与派生词;构词法(合成与派生;词素的定义;词素变体;自由词素;粘着词素(词根,词缀和词干等。第六章词汇学词的定义;语法词与词汇词;变词与不变词;封闭词与开放词;词的辨认;习语与搭配。第七章句法句法的定义;句法关系;结构;成分;直接成分分析法;并列结构与从属结构;句子成分;范畴(性,数,格;一致;短语,从句,句子扩展

3、等。第八章语义学语义的定义;语义的有关理论;意义种类(传统、功能、语用;里奇的语义分类;词汇意义关系(同义、反义、下义;句子语义关系。第九章语言变化语言的发展变化(词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化;第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义;萨丕尔-沃夫假说;语言与思维的关系;语言与文化的关系;中西文化的异同。第十一章语用学语用学的定义;语义学与语用学的区别;语境与意义;言语行为理论(言内行为、言外行为和言后行为;合作原则。(主讲教师张祖春Questions&Answers on Key Points of Linguistics英语语言学概论重、难点问与答1.1.What is

4、 language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a system,since linguistic elements are arranged systematically,rather than randomly.Arbitrary,in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work(like“book”and the object it refers to.Th

5、is explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different“books”:“book”in English,“livre”in French,in Japanese,in Chinese,“check”in Korean.It is symbolic,because words are associated with objects,actions,ideas etc.by nothing but convention.Namely,people use the sounds or vocal

6、 forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to.It is vocal,because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages,developed or“new”.Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms.The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak(and listen before they write(and rea

7、dalso indicates that language is primarily vocal,rather than written.The term“human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2.What are design features of language?“Design features”here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between

8、 human language and any system of animal communication.They are arbitrariness,duality, productivity,displacement,cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3.What is arbitrariness?By“arbitrariness”,we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds(see I.1.A dog might be a pig if

9、only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig.Language is therefore largely arbitrary.But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words,like“bang”,“crash”,“roar”,which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly,some compounds(words

10、compounded to be one wordare not entirely arbitrary either.“Type”and“write”are opaque or unmotivated words,while“type-writer”is less so,or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it.So we can say“arbitrariness”is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer“duality”(of struc

11、tureto the fact that in all languages so far investigated,one finds two levels of structure or patterning.At the first,higher level,language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes,words etc.;at the second,lower level,it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack

12、 any meaning in themselves,but which combine to form units of meaning.According to Hu Zhanglin et al.(p.6,language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning.This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units(words,and these units of me

13、aning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences(note that we have dictionaries of words,but no dictionary of sentences!. Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge.No animal communication system enjoys this duality,or even approaches

14、this honour.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in ones native language,including those that has never heard before,but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.No one has ever said or

15、heard“A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”,but he can say it when necessary,and he can understand it in right register.Different from artistic creativity,though,productivity never goes outside the language,thus also called“rule-bound creativity”(by N.Chomsky.

16、1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”,as one of the design features of the human language,refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present,as easily as he does things present.In other words,one can refer to real and unreal things,things of the past,of the present,of the futur

17、e.Language itself can be talked about too.When a man,for example,is crying to a woman,about something,it might be something that had occurred,or something that is occurring,or something that is to occur.When a dog is barking, however,you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exis

18、ts now and there.It couldnt be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost.The bees system, nonetheless,has a small share of“displacement”,but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation

19、 to generation,but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker.It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N.Chomsky called it“language acquisition device”,or LADhas a genetic basis,but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural on

20、e other than a genetic one like the dogs barking system.If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolfs roaring“tongue”when he was saved.He learned thereafter,with no small difficulty,the ABC of a certa

21、in human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.We can say,and on other occasions can receive and understand,for example,“Please do something to make me happy.”Though some people(including mesuggest th

22、at there is sex differentiation in the actual language use,in other words,men and women may say different things,yet in principle there is no sound,or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot,or vice versa.On the other hand,a person can be the speaker while the other person is the li

23、stener and as the turn moves on to the listener,he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen.It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2Some male birds,however,utter some calls which females do not(or cannot?,and certain kindsof fish have similar haps men

24、tionable.When a dog barks,all the neighbouring dogs bark.Then people around can hardly tell which dog(dogsis(are0“speaking”and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all,human language has six“design features”which animal communication systems do not have,at lea

25、st not in the true sense of them(see I.2-8.Lets borrow C.F.Hockets Chart that compares human language with some animalssystems,from Wang Gang(1998,p.8.Secondly,linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring.Washoe,a

26、 female chimpanzee,was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner.She was taught“American sign Language”,and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy,for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly,a human child reared among animals

27、 cannot speak a human language,not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so(see the“Wolf Child”in I.71.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions:phatic,directive,Informative,interrogative,expressive, evocative and performative.According to Wang Gang(1988,p.1

28、1,language has three main functions: a tool of communication,a tool whereby people learn about the world,and a tool by which people learn about the world,and a tool by which people create art.M.A.K.Halliday,representative of the London school,recognizes three“Macro-Functions”:ideational,interpersona

29、l and textual(see!.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396.1.11What is the phatic function?The“phatic function”refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas.Greetings,farewells,and comments on

30、the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function.Much of the phatic language(e.g.“How are you?”“Fine,thanks.”is insincere if taken literally,but it is important.If you don't say“Hello”to a friend you meet,or if you dont answer his“Hi”,you ruin your friendship.1.12.What i

31、s the directive function?The“directive function”means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something.Most imperative sentences perform this function,e.g.,“Tell me the result when you finish.”Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can,according to J.Austin and J.Searles“i

32、ndrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-278at least,serve the purpose of direction too,e.g.,“If I were you,I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an“informational function”when used to tell something,characterized by the u

33、se of declarative sentences.Informative statements are often labelled as true(truthor false(falsehood. According to P.Grices“Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp282-283,one ought not to violate the“Maxim of Quality”,when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?Whe

34、n language is used to obtain information,it serves an“interrogative function”.This includes all questions that expect replies,statements,imperatives etc.,according to the“indirect speech act theory”,may have this function as well,e.g.,“Id like to know you better.”This may bring forth a lot of person

35、al information.Note that rhetorical questions make an exception,since they demand no answer,at least not the readers/listeners answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The“expressive function”is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker.Subconscious em

36、otional ejaculations are good examples,like“Good heavens!”“My God!”Sentences like“Im sorry about the delay”can serve as good examples too,though in a subtle way.While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements,language used for the express

37、ive function evaluates,appraises or asserts the speakers own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The“evocative function”is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.Its aim is,for example,to amuse,startle,antagonize,soothe,worry or please.Jokes(not practical jokes,though

38、are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener;advertising to urge customers to purchase certaincommodities;propaganda to influence public opinion.Obviously,the expressive and the evocative functions often go together,i.e.,you may express,for example,your personal feelings about a political issue b

39、ut end up by evoking the same feeling in,or imposing it on,your listener.Thats also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the performative function?This means people speak to“do things”or perform actions.On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what word

40、s or sounds constitute the uttered sentence.When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan,the mayor may say“OK”,which means more than speech,and more than an average social individual may do for the construction.The judges imprisonment sentence,the presidents war or independence de

41、claration,etc.,are performatives as well(see J.Austins speech Act Theory,Hu Zhuanglin,ecal.,pp271-278.1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics”is the scientific study of language.It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings.A linguist,though,does not have to

42、 know and use a large number of languages,but to investigate how each language is constructed.He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect,from class to class,how it changes from century to century,how children acquire their mother tongue,and perhaps how a person learns or

43、 should learn a foreign language.In short,linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-221.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the s

44、cientific study of language,it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system.To make sense of the data,a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure,to be checke

45、d against the observed or observable facts.In order to make his analysis scientific,a linguist is usually guided by four principles:exhaustiveness,consistency,and objectivity.Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation,in spite

46、of the complicatedness.He is to leave no linguistic“stone”unturned.Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement.Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be s

47、ubjective in the study,a linguist should be(or sound at leastobjective,matter-of-face,faithful to reality,so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(e.g.Hu Zhuangli

48、n et al.,1988;Wang Gang,1988.But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time,thus the arise of various branches:phonetics,phonology,morphology,syntax,semantics, sociolinguistics,applied linguistics,pragmatics,psycholinguistics,lexicology,lexicography, etymology,et

49、c.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time(as if it stopped developingis a synchrony study (synchrony.The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic.An essay entitled“On the Use of THE”,for example

50、,may be synchronic,if the author does not recall the past of THE,and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27.1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1No one needs the repetition o

51、f the general principle of linguistic analysis,namely,the primacy ofspeech over writing.Speech is primary,because it existed long long before writing systems came into being.Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.Secondly,written forms just represent in this way or that the spe

52、ech sounds:individual sounds,as in English and French as in Japanese.(2In contrast to speech,spoken form of language,writing as written codes,gives language newscope and use that speech does not have.Firstly,messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other.Secondly,messag

53、es can be carried through time thereby,so thatpeople of our time can be carried through time thereby,so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson,and Edgar A.Poe.Thirdly,oral messages are readily subject to distortion,either intentional or unintentional(causing misunderstanding or mal

54、entendu,while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech,different from grammarians of the lastcentury and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?A linguistic stud

55、y is“descriptive”if it only describes and analyses the facts of language,and “prescriptive”if it tries to lay down rules for“correct”language behavior.Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars we

56、re based on“high”(literary or religiouswritten records.Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive,however.It(the latterbelieves that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation,incomplete utterance,misunderstanding,etc.should be described in the analysis,and not be marked as incorrect,abnormal,corru

57、pt,or lousy.These,with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F.de Saussure refers“langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers“parole”to the actual or actualized lan

58、guage,or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract,parole specific to the speaking situation;langue not actually spoken by an individual,parole always a naturally occurring event;langue relatively stable and systematic,parole is a mass of confused facts,thus not suitable for systematic investiga

59、tion.What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure,is to abstract langue from instances of parole,i.e.to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics.The langue-parole distinction is of great importance,which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1According to N.Chomsky,“comp