概念考察与认知工具

1、 概念考察概念考察与与认知工具认知工具 西南大学西南大学 杜世洪杜世洪12022-5-4Du2022-5-4Du2022-5-4Du22022-5-4Du2声明：声明：n1.本讲座属于方法论的讲座，目的并不局限在本讲座属于方法论的讲座，目的并不局限在语言实例本身的描写与解释上，更重要的是要语言实例本身的描写与解释上，更重要的是要注意做实例分析时所沿用的方法。注意做实例分析时所沿用的方法。n2.不要局限在本讲座提及的方法上，更重要的不要局限在本讲座提及的方法上，更重要的是要从这些方法中得到某些启示。是要从这些方法中得到某些启示。n3. I may be wrong, you may be rig

2、ht, and by an effort, we may get nearer to the truth.Karl Popper.32022-5-4Du3本讲座希望达到的目标本讲座希望达到的目标n1.听完讲座后，对“概念”有点专门的概念。n2.听完讲座后，对常见的“认知工具”有点认识。n3.听完讲座后，对日常语言中的一些现象多一点认识。42022-5-4Du4提要提要n0. 语言现象的困惑语言现象的困惑n1. 语言概念的界定语言概念的界定 n2. 概念考察的工具概念考察的工具n3. 认知工具的运用认知工具的运用 42022-5-4Du52022-5-4Du50. 语言现象的困惑语言现象的困惑n

3、看看下列句子，回答几个问题：看看下列句子，回答几个问题：n你读得懂它们吗？你读得懂它们吗？n你很确定它们的意义吗？你很确定它们的意义吗？n你有什么困惑没有？你有什么困惑没有？62022-5-4Du60. 语言现象的困惑语言现象的困惑n1）王冕死了父亲）王冕死了父亲 vs王冕读了研究生。王冕读了研究生。n2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。n3）我们要推选一名副校长）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马我要买辆宝马X6。n4）这个老师像个人。）这个老师像个人。n5）阿）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。没结婚，光棍儿一个。n6）你我有相同的轿车）你我有相同的轿车vs你我有相同的未婚妻。你我有

4、相同的未婚妻。n7）你是我唯一信赖过的人。）你是我唯一信赖过的人。n8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。n9）“我吃过晚饭了我吃过晚饭了”翻译成翻译成“I had my supper”对吗？对吗？72022-5-4Du7n要准确理解，就要有要准确理解，就要有n系统的方法和正确的工具！系统的方法和正确的工具！n方法概括：明类、知故、晓理！方法概括：明类、知故、晓理！n如题入题如题入题82022-5-4Du81. 语言概念的界定语言概念的界定n1.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n1.1 概念的常见表现形式有哪些？概念的常见表现形式有哪些？n1.2 为什么要进行概念考察？

5、为什么要进行概念考察？n1.3 什么是什么是“认知认知”呢？呢？92022-5-4Du91.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n本体论问题依靠认识论的方法来回本体论问题依靠认识论的方法来回答。答。n概念是概念是cognitive science, cognitive linguistics, sociology, computer science, logic and philosophy of language等领域的核心内容等领域的核心内容. 102022-5-4Du101.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n民间的观点：民间的观点：nConcept 概念、观念、思想；总的印象、概念、观念、思想；总的

6、印象、思维的产物，发明，创造等思维的产物，发明，创造等n用法上：用法上：New concept; basic concept; design concept; marketing concept; concept map; concept foodsn重庆人的话：那是啥子重庆人的话：那是啥子慨慨念啰？念啰？n循环？清楚吗？循环？清楚吗？n专家的看法呢？专家的看法呢？112022-5-4Du11NoImage122022-5-4Du121.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n康德（Kant）认为：n我们的reason必须具备什么样的structure、capacities和concepts，我们才能进

7、行认知活动，如进行数学运算、判断等。（Melchert 1999:436） n Intuition and concepts constitute, therefore, the elements of knowledge. （Kant, CPR,92）n“Thoughts without content are empty, and intuition without concepts are blind.” （Kant, CPR, 93）132022-5-4Du13康德（Kant）认为：n康德对concept的界定是：A concept, Kant tells us, is a kind

8、of rule for operating on intuitions. （Melchert 1999:441） n在康德看来，To have a concept is to have an ability.142022-5-4Du141.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n专家的观点：专家的观点：nGilles Fauconnier and Mark Turner ：Conceptual blendingnConceptual blending is a fundamental instrument of the every day mind, used in our basic construa

9、l of all our realities, from the social to the scientific. (Turner, M. 1997. The Literary Mind. Oxford UP, p. 93)152022-5-4Du151.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n学者的观点：学者的观点：nGeorge Lakoff and Mark Johnson：Conceptual systemn“Our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally met

10、aphorical in nature.” (Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980. Metaphors We Live by. The University of Chicago Press, p. 3)nHow is our conceptual system grounded? “We claim that most of our normal conceptual system is metaphorically structured; that is most concepts are partially understood in terms of oth

11、er concepts. ” (Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980: p56)162022-5-4Du161.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n“The prime candidates for concepts that are understood directly are the simple spatial concepts, such as UP,UP-DOWN, FRONT-BACK, IN-OUT, NEAR-FAR. ” (Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980: p56)n“Therefore, whenever in this

12、 book we speak of metaphors, such as ARGUMENT IS WAR, it should be understood that metaphor means metaphorical concept.” (Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1980: p6)n这里看出：概念既表现为词，又表现为语句。这里看出：概念既表现为词，又表现为语句。172022-5-4Du171.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n学者的观点学者的观点： Edward E. Smith, 1998nIn cognitive psychology and philosop

13、hy of mind, concepts are assumed to be the basic constituents of thought and belief. nIn linguistics the study of word meanings or lexical representations often involves the study of those concepts that are coded by single words.n And in artificial intelligence, more often than not, proposals about

14、knowledge representations are proposals about concepts. nMoreover in each of these disciplines concepts are intimately linked to the process of drawing inductive inferences. (Edward E. Smith, 1998, Concepts and Induction. In Foundations of Cognitive Sciences, ed. By M. Posner, pp501-526)182022-5-4Du

15、181.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？n学者的观点学者的观点：nJerry A. Fodor: What Concepts Have to Be? nTwo of its main theses are:nthat if you are going to run a representational /computational theory of mind (that is, any version of RTM; see Chapter 1) you will need a theory of concepts. And:nthat none of the theories of conce

16、pts that are currently taken at all seriously either in cognitive science or in philosophy can conceivably fill the bill. (Fodor, J. A. 1998. Concepts: Where Cognitive Science Went Wrong. Oxford UP, p23)192022-5-4Du191.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？ Jerry A. Fodor: What Concepts Have to Be? nConcepts are mental par

17、ticulars; specifically, they satisfy whatever ontological conditions have to be met by things that function as mental causes and effects.nConcepts are categories and are routinely employed as such.nCompositionality: concepts are the constituents of thoughts and, in indefinitely many cases, of one an

18、other. Mental representations inherit their contents from the contents of their constituents.nQuite a lot of concepts must turn out to be learned.nConcepts are public; theyre the sorts of things that lots of people can, and do, share.202022-5-4Du201.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？nEdouard Machery (in Concepts and Fu

19、zzy Logic 2011. The MIT Press)nIn psychology and in related disciplines (e.g., cognitive neuroscience, AI), na concept of x (e.g., a concept of dog) is usually taken to be a body of knowledge about x (e.g., dogs) that is used by default in the cognitive processes that underwrite most higher cognitiv

20、e competences when we make a judgment about x (e.g., a judgment about dogs). nThus, a concept of x is a subset of the knowledge about x we store in long-term memory; or, to put it differently, only part of our knowledge about x constitutes our concept of x .212022-5-4Du211.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？nRay Jackend

21、off: What Is a Concept, That a Person May Grasp It?nE-Concepts and I-Concepts nThere is a fundamental tension in the ordinary language term concept. nOn one hand, it is something out there in the world: the Newtonian concept of mass is something that is spoken of as though it exists independently of

22、 who actually knows or grasps it. Likewise, grasping a concept evokes comparison to grasping a physical object, except that one somehow does it with ones mind instead of ones hand. nOn the other hand, a concept is spoken of as an entity within ones head, a private entity, a product of the imaginatio

23、n that can be conveyed to others only by means of language, gesture, drawing, or some other imperfect means of communication.n(Concepts: Core readings, 1999, p282)222022-5-4Du221.0 什么是概念？什么是概念？nRussellnFregenConcept= Logical proper name+ PropertiesnA concept has contained a set of propositions.n至此，感

24、觉有点乱？至此，感觉有点乱？232022-5-4Du231.1 概念的常见表现形式有哪概念的常见表现形式有哪些？些？nConcepts as definitionnConcepts as prototypenConcepts as schema or framenConcepts as proposition242022-5-4Du241.1 概念的常见表现形式有哪概念的常见表现形式有哪些？些？nConcepts as definition:qThe classical view: Typically to have a concept of X is to know something ab

25、out the properties of Xs instances. Hence what is represented in a concept is presumably information about properties. n说这个经典，是因为说这个经典，是因为Aristotle持这样持这样的观点。的观点。252022-5-4Du251.1 概念的常见表现形式有哪概念的常见表现形式有哪些？些？nAn old and influential idea is that the properties that comprise a concept are singly necessar

26、y and jointly sufficient to define the concept. nFor a property to be singly necessary, every instance of the concept must have it; for a set of properties to be jointly sufficient, every entity having that set must be an instance of the concept.n比如：比如：Grandmother的概念属性：的概念属性：+old, -male, +parent2620

27、22-5-4Du261.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？概念的常见表现形式有哪些？nHow to specify defining properties? Universal ?n老虎的定义特征是什么呢？n条纹、肉食、猫科？nTypicality Effects272022-5-4Du271.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？概念的常见表现形式有哪些？nA number of experimental findings about how people use natural-kind concepts are problematic for the classical view. nPeople ca

28、n reliably order the instances of any concept with respect to how typical or representative they are of the concept.282022-5-4Du281.1 典型特征认知典型特征认知 实验数据实验数据FruitRating (0-7)Apple6.25Grape5.13Watermelon 4.06Coconut3.06Olive2.26BirdRating (0-7)Robin6.89Swallow6.16Owl5.0Chicken3.95Penguin2.63292022-5-4D

29、u291.1概念的常见表现形式有哪些？概念的常见表现形式有哪些？nConcepts as PrototypesnUnder the prototype view an object is categorized as an instance of a concept if it is sufficiently similar to the prototype, similarity being determined in part by the number of properties that the object and prototype share.302022-5-4Du30Illu

30、strations of How to Use Listed Properties to Calculate an Instances Similarity to PrototypePropertiesrobinswallowvulture chicken penguinflies+-sings+-lays eggs+-+small+-nests in tree+-eat insects+-Similarity to bird66-2-4-4312022-5-4Du311.2 为什么要进行概念考察？为什么要进行概念考察？n概念通过语言表达式呈现出来。概念通过语言表达式呈现出来。n但是，一个语言

31、表达式并不等于一个概念。但是，一个语言表达式并不等于一个概念。n一个概念是多种属性的复合体或者说集合。一个概念是多种属性的复合体或者说集合。n所以，对一个语言表达式的解读，势必要所以，对一个语言表达式的解读，势必要借助于相应的认知工具。借助于相应的认知工具。n常见的认知工具有哪些呢？常见的认知工具有哪些呢？322022-5-4Du32n认知工具？认知工具？n什么是什么是cognition?332022-5-4Du33What is cognition?nthe acquisition of knowledge through perception and experience, the org

32、anization of knowledge into mental structures;nthe conscious or unconscious interpretation of experiences on the basis of previously stored knowledge and mental operations.n In short, cognition is the way we think!342022-5-4Du34试比较：试比较： 什么是什么是 cognitive linguistics ?Cognitive linguistics is the scie

33、ntific study of language in relation to human cognition; or the scientific study of the relation between the way we communicate and the way we think.352022-5-4Du35362022-5-4Du362. 概念考察的工具概念考察的工具n0）认知描写与认知解释（cognitive description and explanation）n1）类与例（Type and Token)n2）分析与综合（Analytic and Synthetic）n

34、3）必然与偶然（Necessary and Contingent）n4）先验与经验（A priori and a posteriori）n5）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto） n6）共相与殊相（universal and particular）n7）使用与提及（use and mention）n8）内在与外在（internal and external）372022-5-4Du372. 概念考察的工具概念考察的工具n9）主观与客观（subjective and objective）n10）范畴与情态（categorical and modal）n11）本性与习性（natura

35、l and conventional)n12）复合与整体（compositional and holistic）n13）演绎与归纳（deduction and induction ）n14） 开放与闭合（open and close）n15）连续与离散（continual and discrete）n16）382022-5-4Du383. 认知工具的运用认知工具的运用 回到前面的例子回到前面的例子n1）王冕死了父亲）王冕死了父亲 vs王冕读了研究生。王冕读了研究生。n2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。n3）我们要推选一名副校长）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马我要买辆宝马X

36、6。n4）这个老师像个人。）这个老师像个人。n5）阿）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。没结婚，光棍儿一个。n6）你我有相同的轿车）你我有相同的轿车vs你我有相同的未婚妻。你我有相同的未婚妻。n7）你是我唯一信赖过的人。）你是我唯一信赖过的人。n8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。n9）“我吃过晚饭了我吃过晚饭了”翻译成翻译成“I had my supper”对吗？对吗？392022-5-4Du393. 认知工具的运用认知工具的运用n0）认知描写与解释 Description vs Explanationn描写the way we communicaten解释the way

37、 we think402022-5-4Du403. 认知工具的运用认知工具的运用n试看先例：试看先例：n例例6）你我有）你我有相同的相同的轿车轿车vs你我有你我有相同的相同的未婚妻。未婚妻。n类相同类相同vs例相同（例相同（type-identical or token-identical)？412022-5-4Du411）类与例（）类与例（Type and Token)nYou and I have the same car.nYou and I have the same fiance. nWhat does the word same mean here? What this examp

38、le shows is that to talk of the same X is ambiguous.422022-5-4Du421）类与例（）类与例（Type and Token)nThe type/token distinction is important with regard to identity.nTwo things that are the same in every respect, but which are not, in fact, one object, are said to be type-identical. Each type-identical obje

39、ct or person is said to be a token of that single type.nWhen we have two terms for example, my fiance and your fiance but only one referent, we say the two terms refer to one single thing that is token-identical.432022-5-4Du432）分析与综合（分析与综合（Analytic and Synthetic）: 类推与类比类推与类比n5）阿）阿Q没结婚，光棍儿一个。没结婚，光棍儿一

40、个。n1）王冕死了父亲）王冕死了父亲 vs王冕读了研究生。王冕读了研究生。442022-5-4Du442）分析与综合（分析与综合（Analytic and Synthetic）na linguistic distinction. nAnalytic sentences are true merely in virtue of the meanings of the words (All bachelors are unmarried is the usual example). nSynthetic statements, by contrast, is fixated on the exte

41、rnal world (at least to some degree).442022-5-4Du452022-5-4Du452）分析与综合分析与综合nThis distinction may also be construed in argument form. For example, nif you think that “Ah Q（阿Q）” is a bachelor and you then conclude he is not married, you have made an analytic judgment, since in saying he is not married

42、 you have said nothing that is not already contained in the thought that he is a bachelor.462022-5-4Du462）分析与综合分析与综合nIf, however, you think that something is water and you judge that it boils at 100 C, you are making a synthetic judgment, since nothing in the mere thought that something is water can

43、 tell you what its boiling point is.472022-5-4Du473）必然与偶然（）必然与偶然（Necessary and Contingent） 4）先验与经验（）先验与经验（A priori and a posteriori）nMetaphysical /Epistemic distinctionsn8）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。）我就是我，是颜色不一样的烟火。n前半截必然，后半截偶然。n2+2=4；482022-5-4Du484）先验与经验（）先验与经验（A priori and a posteriori）A priori and a posteri

44、ori are epistemic notions they have to do with our knowledge.A proposition is said to be a priori if we can know it on the basis of reason alone, without appeal to experience. My knowledge that 2 + 2 = 4 is an example of a priori knowledge. Scientific knowledge, by contrast, is empirical (or a poste

45、riori).482022-5-4Du492022-5-4Du493）必然与偶然（）必然与偶然（Necessary and Contingent）Necessary vs. ContingentNecessary vs. contingent are metaphysical notions they concern how the world is (independently of our knowledge) or how it might have been independently of thought.492022-5-4Du502022-5-4Du503）必然与偶然（）必然与偶

46、然（Necessary and Contingent）nNatural kinds (water, gold, electron, electromagnetic field, etc.) have essential and contingent attributes.nFor instance, water is essentially H2O. If that stuff (e.g., the one which comes from faucets) did not have the chemical structure H2O, then it would not/could not

47、 be what it is.nOn the contrary, temperature is a contingent property of water.502022-5-4Du512022-5-4Du513）必然与偶然（）必然与偶然（Necessary and Contingent）nA proposition is necessarily true if it could not have been false (e.g. 2+2=4, again). nContingent propositions are ones that could (in principle) have ha

48、d different truth values. nFor example, it is merely contingently true that you are listening to me right now. We can imagine some other possible world instead where you are watching T.V.or something else.512022-5-4Du522022-5-4Du525）涉实与涉名（）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto）n2）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。）芙蓉姐姐想当电影明星。n3）我们要推选一

49、名副校长）我们要推选一名副校长vs我要买辆宝马我要买辆宝马X6。n4）这个老师像个人。）这个老师像个人。532022-5-4Du535）涉实与涉名（）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto）nde re vs. de dicto modalitynA distinction in modal logicRemember: de re means concerning the thing（涉实）.De re modality: modal terms apply to the possession of an attribute by an objectDe dicto modalit

50、y: modal terms apply to a statement or proposition. It means “concerning the proposition”(涉名)532022-5-4Du542022-5-4Du545）涉实与涉名（）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto）nDe dicto: A believes that or desires x.qMary believes that an FBI agent shot JFK.qSister Furong（芙蓉姐姐） desires to be a famous movie star.nDe re: Th

51、ere is an x such that A believes or desires it.qThere is an FBI agent whom Mary believes shot JFK.qThere is a famous movie star （say, Fan Bingbing) whom Sister Furong wants to be.552022-5-4Du555）涉实与涉名（）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto）nSo, to give another example,nif I say, I want to buy a BMW 730, my desir

52、e is de dicto if any BMW 730 will do, nbut de re if I have a particular car in mind, perhaps the one my neighbor is thinking of selling at a knock-down price to flatter me.n我们要推选一个副校长。562022-5-4Du565）涉实与涉名（）涉实与涉名（de re and de dicto）nThe de re/de dicto distinction is also important in matters of nece

53、ssity.nFor instance, if Professor Jiang is the oldest person in Chongqing, in what sense, if any, is it correct to say that he is necessarily the oldest person in Chongqing?n涉名的必然性 与 涉实的必然性572022-5-4Du57If I am sitting, then I am necessarily not standing.De dicto reading: the statement that if someone is sitting then she is not standing is a necessary one, so on de dicto r