英语课程与教学论学生用补充资料2

1、There are a variety of elements that contribute to the qualities of a good language teacher. They are: ethic devotion, professional qualities and personal styles.How can one become a good language teacher?PracticeReflectionProfessionalCompetenceOthers experienceReceivedKnowledgeOwnExperienceLanguage

2、 TrainingStage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3Figure 1.1 Teachers professional development From the above model, we can see the development of professional competence for language training involves Stage 1, Stage 2, and Goal. The first stage is language training. All English teachers are supposed to have a sound

3、command of English. Of course, language is always changing so language training can never come to an end. The second stage seems to be more complicated because it involves three sub-stages: learning, practice, and reflection. The learning stage is actually the specific preparation that a language te

4、acher should make before they go to practice. This preparation can be:1. learn from others experience (empirical knowledge)2. learn received knowledge (such as language theories, psycholiguistics, sociolinguistics, educational psychology, language teaching methodology, etc. )3. learn from ones own e

5、xperienceBehaviorist theorySkinner suggested language is also a form of behaviour. It can be learned the same way as an animal is trained to respond to stimuli.Stimulus-response-reinforcement Cognitive theoryAccording to Chomsky, language is not a form of behaviour, it is an intricate rule-based sys

6、tem and a large part of language acquisition is the learning of this system. One influential idea is that students should be allowed to create their own sentences based on their understanding of certain rules. Chomskys transformational generative grammar (转换生成语法)Constructivist theory:It believes tha

7、t learning is a process in which the learner constructs meaning based on his/her own experiences and what he/she already known.John Dewey(1859-1952) provided a foundation for constructivism. John Dewey believed that teaching should be built based on what learners already knew and engage learners in

8、learning activities. Teachers need to design environments and interact with learners to foster inventive, creative, critical learners.Socio-constructivist theory Vygotsky (1896-1934) emphasizes interaction and engagement with the target language in a social context based on the concept of Zone of Pr

9、oximal Developmentand scaffolding.Learning is best achieved through the dynamic interaction between the teacher and the learner and between learners.The zone of proximal development is the distance between what children can do by themselves and the next learning that they can be helped to achieve wi

10、th competent assistance. The scaffolding teaching strategy provides individualized support based on the learners ZPD. In scaffolding instruction a more knowledgeable other provides scaffolds or supports to facilitate the learners development. The scaffolds facilitate a students ability to build on p

11、rior knowledge and internalize new information. The activities provided in scaffolding instruction are just beyond the level of what the learner can do alone. The more capable other provides the scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish (with assistance) the tasks that he or she could otherwise n

12、ot complete, thus helping the learner through the ZPD.Description of Krashen's Theory of Second Language AcquisitionKrashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the

13、 Input hypothesis, and the Affective Filter hypothesis. The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners. According to Krashen there are two independent systems of second la

14、nguage performance: 'the acquired system' and 'the learned system'. The 'acquired system' or 'acquisition' is the product of a subconscious process very similar to the process children undergo when they acquire their first language. It requires meaningful interaction

15、in the target language - natural communication - in which speakers are concentrated not in the form of their utterances, but in the communicative act.The 'learned system' or 'learning' is the product of formal instruction and it comprises a conscious process which results in consciou

16、s knowledge 'about' the language, for example knowledge of grammar rules. According to Krashen 'learning' is less important than 'acquisition'. The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the for

17、mer. The monitoring function is the practical result of the learned grammar. According to Krashen, the acquisition system is the utterance initiator, while the learning system performs the role of the 'monitor' or the 'editor'. The 'monitor' acts in a planning, editing and co

18、rrecting function when three specific conditions are met: that is, the second language learner has sufficient time at his/her disposal, he/she focuses on form or thinks about correctness, and he/she knows the rule.It appears that the role of conscious learning is somewhat limited in second language

19、performance. According to Krashen, the role of the monitor is - or should be - minor, being used only to correct deviations from 'normal' speech and to give speech a more 'polished' appearance. Krashen also suggests that there is individual variation among language learners with rega

20、rd to 'monitor' use. He distinguishes those learners that use the 'monitor' all the time (over-users); those learners who have not learned or who prefer not to use their conscious knowledge (under-users); and those learners that use the 'monitor' appropriately (optimal users)

21、. An evaluation of the person's psychological profile can help to determine to what group they belong. Usually extroverts are under-users, while introverts and perfectionists are over-users. Lack of self-confidence is frequently related to the over-use of the 'monitor'.The Natural Order

22、hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable. For a given language, some grammatical structures tend to be acquired early while others late. This order seemed to be independent of the le

23、arners' age, L1 background, conditions of exposure, and although the agreement between individual acquirers was not always 100% in the studies, there were statistically significant similarities that reinforced the existence of a Natural Order of language acquisition. Krashen however points out t

24、hat the implication of the natural order hypothesis is not that a language program syllabus should be based on the order found in the studies. In fact, he rejects grammatical sequencing when the goal is language acquisition.The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acq

25、uires a second language. In other words, this hypothesis is Krashen's explanation of how second language acquisition takes place. So, the Input hypothesis is only concerned with 'acquisition', not 'learning'. According to this hypothesis, the learner improves and progresses along

26、 the 'natural order' when he/she receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of linguistic competence. For example, if a learner is at a stage 'i', then acquisition takes place when he/she is exposed to 'Comprehensible Input' that be

27、longs to level 'i + 1'. Since not all of the learners can be at the same level of linguistic competence at the same time, Krashen suggests that natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, ensuring in this way that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that

28、is appropriate for his/her current stage of linguistic competence. Finally, the fifth hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition. These variables incl

29、ude: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to 

30、9;raise' the affective filter and form a 'mental block' that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition. In other words, when the filter is 'up' it impedes language acquisition. On the other hand, positive affect is necessary, but not sufficient on its own, for

31、 acquisition to take place.A syllabus provides a focus for what should be studied, along with a rational for how the content should be selected and ordered. Characteristics of a Syllabus 1. Consists of a comprehensive lists of-   content items (words, structures, topics)-  &

32、#160;process items (tasks, methods)2. Is ordered (easier, more essential items first)3. Has explicit objectives (usually expressed in the introduction)4. Is a public document5. May indicate a time schedule6. May indicate a preferred methodology or approach7. May recommend materialsOverall Language A

33、bilityAffect and AttitudeInternational perspectivesPatriotismCooperationConfidenceMotivationCultural ConsciousnessCultural KnowledgeCultural UnderstandingCross-cultural CommunicationLearning StrategiesCognitive StrategiesSelf-management Strategies( Metacognitive Strategies)Communication StrategiesRe

34、sourcing StrategiesLanguage skillsListening, Speaking, Reading, WritingLanguage KnowledgePhonetics , Grammar, Vocabulary, Functions, Topics图2英语课程分级目标结构Unit 4 Teaching the language system and skillsTeaching aims:1. What is language system? How to present the language system?2. What is the objectives

35、of teaching pronunciation?3. How to teach language skills?The objective of teaching pronunciationIntelligibility: The pronunciation should be understandable to the listeners.Communicative efficiency: The pronunciation should help to convey the meaning that is intended by the speaker. Consistency: Th

36、e pronunciation should be smooth and natural.Principles of teaching pronunciation1. Using contrastive analysis to pinpoint difficult spots and decide the key points2. Imitation Steps: listening, imitating, contrasting, and learning to use3. Combine the sound system with reading out, listening, and s

37、peaking exercises.Teaching steps of a single sound1. Say the sound in meaningful context.2. Get the students to repeat the sound in chorus.3. Get individual students to repeat the sound.4. Explain how to make the sound.5. Say the sound in a word.6. Contrast it with other sounds.7. Say the sound in m

38、eaningful context.Types of pronunciation exercises1. Perception practice: a. Minimal pairs: Minimal pairs are pairs of words which have only one sound different from each other. e.g: will well till tell fill fell lid led ship sheep bid bedb. Which order? e.g: pit pet bet bear tear ear 1 3 2 3 1 2c.

39、Same or different? met meet (D) well well (S)d. Odd man out e.g: bit bit bit pit (No. 4 is different.) lid led lid lid (No. 2 is different.)e. Completion e.g: _ate _ate _ate _ate _ate2. Production practice: a. Listen and repeat b. Fill in the blanks e.g: Children love to play games.Black and white m

40、ake grey.After April come May.24c. Make up sentencesd. Using meaningful text. e.g: A: Whats wrong with you, Mr. Bloggs? B: I hate this horrible job. A: What job? B: Washing socks. A: What do you want to do? B: I want a holiday.e. Using picturese.g: This is old Jack.He has a black cat.Its name is Pat

41、.It is very fat.e. Using tongue twisterse.g: She sells sea shells on the seashore. Five wives drank five bottles of fine wine.VI Practicing stressing: Two kinds of stress: word-level stress, phrase-level or sentence-level stressWays of showing the stress1. Use gestures. The teacher can indicate the

42、stress by clapping hands or using arm movements as if conducting music.2. Use the voice. The teacher can raise the voice to indicate stress. This can be done with some exaggeration sometimes.3. Use the blackboard. The teacher can highlight the stress parts by underling them or writing them with colo

43、red chalks or in different size.The importance of practicing intonation1. Intonation can greatly affect the intention of the speakers message.2. Intonation is used by native speakers to express meanings in many subtle ways such as surprise, complaint, sarcasm, friendliness, threats, etc.3. Intonatio

44、n is “as important as grammar or lexis.”Kelly (2005: 12) provides a useful summary which may be adapted for classroom practice. Rising or fallingExampleIndicationa. Falling on a statementHes moved to Glasgow. Im telling something I think you dont know.b. Falling and rising within a statementHes move

45、d to Glasgow. (about a year ago).I havent finished yet (there is more information to come).c. Falling on a questionWhere do you live?Im asking a genuine question.d. Rising on a questionWhere do you live?I know youve told me before butThe role of grammar in language learningØ Teaching grammar is

46、 less important for children than for adults.Ø Teaching grammar is less important in listening and reading than in writing.Grammar presentationThe deductive method: The deductive method relies on reasoning, analyzing and comparing. Ø First, the teacher writes an example on the board or dra

47、ws attention to an example in the textbook. Ø Then the teacher explains the underlying rules regarding the forms and positions of certain structural words. ² The explanations are often done in the students native language and use grammatical terms. ² Sometimes, comparisons are made be

48、tween the native language and the target language or between the newly presented structure and previously learned structures. Ø Finally, the students practise applying the rule to produce sentences with given prompts.The demerits of the deductive methodØ It teaches grammar in an isolated w

49、ay.Ø Little attention is paid to meaning.Ø Practice is often mechanical.The merits of the deductive methodØ It could be very successful with selected and motivated students.Ø It could save time when students are confronted with a grammar rule which is complex but which has to be

50、learned.Ø It may help increase students confidence in those examination which are written with accuracy as the main criterion of success.The inductive methodIn the inductive method, the teacher provides learners with authentic language data and induces the learners to realize grammar rules with

51、out any form of explicit explanation.Ø It is believed that the rules swill become evident if the students are given enough appropriate examples.Ø After several similar examples, it is hoped students will understand that newly presented structure to produce sentences with given visual aids

52、or verbal prompts. Ø The teacher tries to say nothing except to correct when necessary. Ø Finally, but optionally, the teacher may elicit the grammar rule from the students.The guided discovery methodØ The guided discovery method is similar to the inductive method in that the students

53、 are induced to discover rules by themselves but different in that the process of the discovery is carefully guided and assisted by the teacher and the rules are then elicited and taught explicitly. Ø In the guided discovery method, students are presented with contextualized scenarios illustrat

54、ing a specific structure. Students are then guided to discover the underlying rule of the structure as well as its meaning in context followed by explicit teaching and learning of the target structure.NoticeIn practice, learner variables and instructional variables need to be considered when teacher

55、s decide which method to use in presenting a particular grammatical structure. Whatever methods you use, Ur (1996:81) reminds us that the presentation should not take longer than five minutes. Grammar practiceFactors contribute to successful practiceØ Pre-learning. Practice is more effective wh

56、en new language is clearly perceived and taken into short-term memory by the learners. Ø Volume and repetition. The more language the learners are exposed to or produce, the more they are likely to learn. The learners should have plenty of time and opportunities to listen to, speak, read and wr

57、ite different examples of the structures form and meaning. Ø Success-orientation. Practice is most effective if it is based on successful practice.Ø Heterogeneity. Practice should be able to elicit different sentences and generate different levels of answers from different learners.Ø

58、Teacher assistance. Practice is most effective when teacher assistance is available such as suggestions, hints and prompts.Ø Interest. Interest is an essential feature of successful practice. Learners who are bored find it difficult to concentrate and their attention wanders. Mechanical practic

59、e and Meaningful/communicative practiceMechanical practiceØ Mechanical practice involves activities that are aimed at form accuracy. Ø By doing mechanical practice, the students pay repeated attention to a key element is a structure. Ø Substitution and transformation drills are most frequently used in mechanical practice.Ø In