philosophyoflanguage语言哲学简介

1、Introduction to Philosophy of LanguageContents: Meaning and Reference 意义和所指 Definite Descriptions 限定摹状词Philosophy of language is concerned with four central problems: the nature of meaning, language use, language cognition, and the relationship between language and reality. (Wikipedia)Certain kinds

2、of marks and noises have meaning.Each meaningful sentence has parts that are themselves meaningful.Each meaningful sentence means something in particular.Competent speakers of a language are able to grasp those meanings without effort.Explanation:Linguistic expressions have the meanings they do beca

3、use they stand for things; what they mean is what they stand for. Referential Theory 指称论 一个名称的意义就是它所指示或指称的对象Types of Referential Theory: traditional referential theory (Mill; Frege; Russell; Wittgenstein) historical cause-effect referential theory (Kripke; Putnam) intentional referential theory (Sea

4、rle)Several Objections toward Referential Theory:Not every word names or denotes any actual object. (Pegasus; fat; behalf)A list of names doesnt mean anything. (Ralph fatness)Meaning is not just reference. two terms can share reference but differ in meaning (Joseph Ratzinger & the Pope)Referenti

5、al theory may at least singular terms. (proper names, pronouns, definite descriptions)In On Denoting, Russell categorized referential words into proper names (专名) and descriptions (摹状词).Distinction:Proper namesDescriptions SymbolSimple, completeComplex, incompleteMeaningReferent is meaningMeaning is

6、 decided by meaning of words composing it Function Naming DescribingExamples London, Churchill, 下午3点15分Definite description: the cat on the mat Indefinite description: a unicorn Four puzzles by Russell:(1) The problem of apparent reference to nonexistent 对非存在物的明显指称难题 e.g.: James Moriarty is bald. J1

7、 是有意义的。 J2 是主谓句。 J3 一个有意义的主谓句仅当它能够识别出某一个别事物并把某一属性归于这一事物才是有意义的。 J4 的主项不能识别或指示任何存在的事物。 J5 如果仅当能够识别出某一个别事物并把某一属性归于这一事物 才有意义，且如果 的主项不能识别或指示任何存在的事物，那么要么 没意义，要么 识别出某个不存在的事物。 J6 不存在“不存在的事物” 这样的事物。(2) The problem of negative existentials 否定存在难题 e.g.: Pegasus never existed. (3) Freges puzzle about identity 弗

8、雷格的同一性疑难(a=b 比 a=a 具有更大的认识价值，因为a、b虽指称相同，但意义不同。) e.g.: Mark Twain is Samule Langhorne Clemens.(4) The problem of substitutivity 替换难题 e.g.: Albert believes that Samuel Langhorne Clemens was less than 5 feet tall. ? Mark TwainRussells solution to the four puzzles with Theory of DescriptionsTheory of De

9、scriptions is mainly concerned with logic of “the”E.g.: The author of Waverley is Scotch. statements logical forms (a) At least one person authored Waverley. (x)Wx (b) At most one person authored Waverley. (x)(Wx (y) (Wy y = x) (c) Whoever authored Waverley was Scotch. (x)(Wx Sx) (x)(Wx & (y) (W

10、y y = x) & Sx)Apparent Reference to Nonexistents: e.g.: The present king of France is bald. At least one person is presently king of France. At most one person is presently king of France. Whoever is presently king of France is bald.J2 is false because “the present king of France” isnt really a

11、singular term. （失去了本身的指称功能）Negative Existentials: e.g.: The present king of France does not exist. At least one person is presently king of France. At most one person is presently king of France. Whoever is presently king of France does not exist.This puzzle is solved by applying “not” to the senten

12、ce as a whole.Not: (At least one person is presently king of France, and at most one person is presently king of France, and whoever is presently king of France exists). (x) (Kx & (y) (Ky y = x) & Ex)Freges Puzzle: e.g.: The present Queen of England is Elizabeth Windsor. At least one person

13、is presently Queen of England. At most one person is presently Queen of England. Whoever is presently Queen of England is Elizabeth Windsor. (x) (Qx & (y) (Qy y = x) & x = e).This sentence can inform us of something new in virtue of Theory of Description. Substitutivity: e.g.: Albert believe

14、s that the author of Nothing and Beingness is a profound thinker. Albert believes the following: (At least one person authored Nothing and Beingness (Sizzling Veterinarians), at most one person authored Nothing and Beingness (Sizzling Veterinarians), whoever authored Nothing and Beingness (Sizzling

15、Veterinarians) is a profound thinker). ？Strawsons Objections:(1) Russell confused meaning with referent.(2) Russell didnt give any consideration to context. e.g.: The table is covered with books.Donnellans Objections:Russell focused on attributive use and ignored referential use.Attributive use 归属性用法Referential use 指称性用法e.g.: Smiths murderer is insane.Conclusion: Referential theory, though attractive, faces several objections. Russells theory of descri