现代语言学笔记及课后答案

1、Linguistics: It is generally defined as the scientific study of language. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.Applied linguistics: In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teachi

2、ng and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages. In a broad sense, it refers to the application of linguistic findings to the solution of practical problems such as the recovery of speech ability.Synchronic study: The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study o

3、f the features of the English used in Shakespeares time is a synchronic study.Diachronic study: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time. e.g. a study of the ch

4、anges English has undergone since Shakespeares time is a diachronic study.Language competence: The ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. A transformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.Language performance: performance is the actual realization of the ide

5、al language users knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication. Langue : Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow; Langue is relatively stable, it does not

6、 change frequently.Parole: Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use; parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules; parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for

7、 human communication.Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity: Language is productiv

8、e or creative in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users.Duality: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at the lower or basic level, and the other of meanings at the higher level.Displacement: langua

9、ge can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmission: While we are born

10、 with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.Design features: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationphonetics: Phonetics is def

11、ined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world s languagesauditory phonetics: It studies the speech sounds from the hearers point of view. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer. acoustic phonetics: It studies the speech

12、 sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to ernational phonetic alphabet IPA: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Broad transcription: the tran

13、scription with letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks.Narrow transcription: is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is the transcription used by the phoneticians in

14、their study of speech sounds.diacritics: is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the letters alone make possible.Voiceless（清音）: when the vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting air go through without causing vibration, the sounds produced in suc

15、h a condition are called voiceless sounds.Voicing （浊音）: Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.Vowel: the sounds in production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowe

16、ls.Consonants: the sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.phonology: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how

17、these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.phone: Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.phoneme: a collection of abstract phonetic features, it is

18、a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized as a certain phone by a certain phonetic context.allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example l and lphonemic contrast: Phonemic contras

19、t refers to the relation between two phonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.Complementary distribution: refers to the relation between two similar phones which are allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur in different

20、environments.minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.suprasegmental features: the phonemic features that occur above the level

21、 of the segments are called suprasegmental features. The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation.tone: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning just like phonemes. The meaning

22、-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in tone languages, for example, in Conation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. For example, English has four basic types of int

23、onation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or deriv

24、ational morphology.Inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflectionsDerivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of two morphemes: “boy” and

25、 “ish”.Free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” are all free morphemes.Bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be

26、 used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“, “-less” are all bound morphemes.Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combine

27、d with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.Affix: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflection

28、al and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“. Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relati

29、onships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of th

30、e stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.Stem: A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation

31、 by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words. 1). syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics which studies the sentence structure of language. It cons

32、ists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences. 2). linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as

33、 linguistic competence.3). sentence: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.4). finite

34、clause（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same time stands structurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies the structural requirements of a finite clause.)5). simple sentence: a simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and

35、stands alone as its own sentence.6). coordinate sentence（并列句）: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.7). complex sentence（复合句）: a complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated （合成一

36、体的） into the other. That is, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate, clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.8). hierarchical structure（层次结构）: the sentence structure t

37、hat groups words into structural constituents and shows the syntactic category of each structural constituent, such as NP and VP.9). syntactic category: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refers to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase (called a phrasal category)

38、 that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or object in a sentence. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.10). grammatical relations: The structural and logical functional relations of cons

39、tituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom. 11). phrase structure rules: a rewrite rule that allows for the possib

40、le combinations of words to form phrases and sentences.12). X-bar theory is a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrasal structure rules into a single format: X (Spec) X (Compl). (In this format, Spec stands for specifier while Compl stands for complement. This theory is capable o

41、f reducing the redundancies of individual phrasal structure rules and may well capture certain basic properties shared by all phrasal categories, i.e. NP, VP, AP, PP, across the languages of the world. )13). transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence typ

42、e into another type. 14). D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure. (Phrase structure rules + the lexiconD-structure Movement r

43、ules S-structure)15). S-structure: a level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement16). Move a: a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.17). Universal Grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of

44、some general principles and parameters about natural languages. 1). Semantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 2). Sense: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is a

45、bstract and de-contextualized. 3). Reference: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4). Synonymy: Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of me

46、aning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.5). Polysemy: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.6). Homonymy（同音异义，同形异义）: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. , different words are id

47、entical in sound or spelling, or in both.7). Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.8). Homographs同形异义: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.9). Complete homonyms: When two words are identic

48、al in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.10). Hyponymy（下义关系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general is called a superordinate（上坐标

49、词）, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. (Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms: dog, cat, lion, tiger.11). Antonymy: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning (on different dimensions).12). Componenti

50、al analysis（成分分析法）: Componential analysis is a way proposed by structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. This approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are called semantic features. For example: the word “man” is analyzed as compr

51、ising the features of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.13). Predication analysis（述谓结构分析）: It is an approach proposed by British linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. T

52、his applies to all forms of sentence, including statements, imperative and interrogative forms. A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about

53、an argument or it states the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.14). The grammatical meaning: The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the lang

54、uage.15). Two-place predication: A two-place predication is one which contains two arguments. 1). Pragmatics: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.2). Context: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It consists of (I

55、t is generally considered as constituted by) the knowledge that is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about t

56、he situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.3). Utterance meaning: the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a c

57、ontext. 4). Sentence meaning: The meaning of a sentence is often considered as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication.5). Constative: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable;6). Performative: performatives, on the othe

58、r hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act. 7). Locutionary act: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, l

59、exicon and phonology. 8). Illocutionary act: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speakers intention; it is the act performed in saying something. 9). Perlocutionary act: A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something.10). Cooperati