Understanding public policy 理解公共政策

1、Understanding public policy 理解公共政策（朱青整理）chapter IPolicy analysispiDefinition of policy公共政策定义Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.公共政策就是政府选择做与选择不做的事情；Public policies may regulate behavior, organize bureaucracies, distribute benefits, or extract taxes-or all things at once.公

2、共政策涉及调节个体行为、构建官僚体系、分配利益、征税、或者同事完成这些事务。P1-2Policy expansion f 政策扩张Government growth f 政府扩大The new deal programs devised f 罗斯福新政The great depression大萧条The national economy f 国民经济The great society programs f 大社会计划0Economic downturn f 经济滑坡Regulatory activity f 管制活动P3图示指标What the Federal Government Does

3、联邦政府职能Defense国防Social security and Medicare社会保障和医疗保险Interest on the national debt国债的利息Health卫生保健Welfare社会福利Transportation交通运输Education教育Natural resources and environment自然资源和环境Law enforcement执法Veterans退伍军人All other其他What state and local government do 州和地方政府职能Education教育Welfare社会福利Health and hospital

4、s保健和医疗Highways高速公路Police and fire治安和消防Sanitation卫生Prisons监狱Natural resources and environment自然资源和环境All other其他P4Dependent variables f 因变量The independent variables 自变量Determinants f决定性因素Policy evaluation f 政策评估P6The difference between policy analysis and policy advocacy政策分析与政策倡议的差别Policy advocacy req

5、uires the skills of rhetoric, persuasion, organization, and activism.政策倡议需要修辞、说服、组织与实践的技巧；Policy analysis encourages scholars and students to attack critical policy issues with the tools of systematic inquiry. 政策分析则鼓励学者运用系统研究的工具来探讨重要的政策问题。Translation f policy analysis involves 政策分析内容explanation rath

6、er than prescription.政策分析主要关注的是政策的解释说明而不是提出政策建议；A rigorous search for the causes and consequences of public policies.政策分析探索公共政策的原因和结果；An effort to develop and test general propositions about the causes and consequences of public policy and to accumulate reliable research findings of general relevanc

7、e.政策分析还试图发展并检验关于公共政策因果的一般性命题，以及积累具有普遍意 义的、可靠的研究成果。P7-8The limitations of policy analysis公共政策的局限性Limits on government power政府权力的有限性Disagreement over the problem社会问题认定上的分歧 Subjectivity in interpretation政策解释的主观性Limitations on design of human research人类研究设计的局限性Complexity of human behavior人类行为的复杂性Transla

8、tion fUnderstanding public policy is both an art and a craft. It is an art because it requires insight, creativity, and imagination in identifying societal problems and describing them, in devising public policies that might alleviate them, and them in finding out whether these policies end up makin

9、g things better or worse.公共政策分析既是一门艺术，也是一种技术。说它是一门艺术，是因为在社会问题确认、社 会问题描述、政策方案设计和政策效果评估时，需要有洞察力、创造力和想象力。chapter 2Models of politicspiiDefinition of models for policy analysis 政策分析模型的定义A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of some aspect of the real world.模型是对现实世界某个方面进行简化的表现形式。Conceptua

10、l models/word models 概念性的模型Actual physical representation 真实物质表型形式Uses of models模型的运用Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy简化并澄清我们对政治和公共政策的思考Identify important aspects of policy problems识别政策问题的重要方面Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on essential features of

11、 political life通过关注政治生活的主要特征，促进我们相互之间的沟通Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by suggesting what is important and what is unimportant指导我们更好地理解公共政策，鉴别重要与不重要的方面Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences解释公共政策并预测其结果Selected policy modelsInstitutional model（制度主义模

12、型）Process model（过程模型）Rational model（理性主义模型）Incremental model （渐进主义模型）Group model（团体理论模型）Elite model（精英模型）Public choice model （公共选择模型） Game theory model （博弈论模型）P14The policy process 政策过程Problem identification 问题确认The identification of policy problems throughdemand from individuals and groups for gove

13、rnment action.Agenda setting 议程设定Focusing the attention of the mass media and public officialson specific public problems to decide what will be decided.Policy formulation 政策形成The development of policy proposals by interest groups,White House staff, congressional committees, and think tanks.Policy l

14、egitimating 政策合法化The selection and enactment of polices through actionsby Congress, the president, and the courts.Policy implementation 政策执行The implementation of policies through governmentbureaucracies, public expenditures, regulations, and other activities of executive agencies.Policy evaluation 政

15、策评估The evaluation of policies by government agenciesthemselves, outside consultants, the media, and the general public.问题确认 通过公民对政府行为的要求来确认政策问题；议程设定 特定的公共问题引起媒体和政府官员的关注，促使其被提上政策议程；政策形成 由利益集团、白宫官员、国会议员和智囊团提出政策建议；政策合法化 通过国会、总统和法院的政治活动，选择并制定政策；政策执行通过官僚组织、公共支出、行政机构的活动来推动政策实施；政策评估 由政府机构本身，政策外部的顾问、咨询人员，媒体

16、和公众等来评价政策实 施的结果。P15To select a rational policy, policymakers must决策者如何选择合乎理性的政策Know all the societys value preferences and their relative weights,Know all the policy alternatives available,Know all the consequences of each policy alternative,Calculate the ratio of benefits to costs for each policy a

17、lternative, andSelect the most efficient policy alternative.了解所有的社会价值偏好及其相对权重；了解可以获得的所有备选方案；知道每一备选方案的所有结果；计算每一备选方案的收益与成本之比；选择其中最有效的政策方案；P18-19incrementalism: policy as variations on the past?为什么说渐进主义中政策是过去改革的补充和修正？Because they do not have the time, information, or money to investigate all the altern

18、atives to existing policy;Policymakers accept the legitimacy of previous policies because of the uncertainty about the consequences of completely new or different policies;There may be heavy investments in existing programs(sunk costs), which preclude any really radical change;incrementalism is poli

19、tically expedient;In the absence of any agreed-on societal goals or values.政府没有足够的时间、信息和金钱来调查能够替代现行政策的政策方案；决策者承认以往政策的合法性，因为全新的或完全不同的政策的结果存在着不确定 性；在现行的政策项目上可能有巨大的投入(沉淀成本)，这也阻碍了任何彻底的变革；渐进主义也是政治上的权宜之计；在对社会目标或价值没有达成共识的情况下P20Earl Latham described public policy厄尔莱瑟姆从团体理论角度对公共改革的定义Public policy is actually

20、 the equilibrium reached in the group struggle at any given moment, and it represents a balance which the contending factions or groups constantly strive to tip in their favor所谓公共政策，实际上就是团体竞争在既定时间达到均衡的结果，它代表的是相互竞争的派 别或团体坚持不懈地努力为维护自身利益而达到的平衡P22Elite theory精英理论的内容Society is divided into the few who ha

21、ve power and the many who do not;The few who govern are not typical of the masses who are governed;The movement of nonelites to elite positions must be slow and continuous to maintainstability and avoid revolution;Elites share consensus in behalf of the basic values of the social system and the pres

22、ervationof the system;Public policy does not reflect the demands of masses but rather the prevailing values of theelite;Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic masses.社会被分为掌握权力的少数人和没有权力的多数人；这些居于统治地位的精英并不是处于被统治地位的大众的代表；从被统治的非精英阶层上升到处于统治地位的精英阶层的过程是缓慢的、持续的，从而 确保社会

23、稳定并避免革命的发生；精英阶层对社会制度的基本价值观以及如何维护这一社会制度的发展会达成共识；公共政策并不反映大众的需求，而只反映精英的主导价值观；精英对待政策的态度是积极的，而大众则是冷漠和麻木的；Homoeconomicus 经济人Homopoliticus 政治人P24The definition of public choice theory 公共选择理论的定义People pursue their self-interest in both politics and the marketplace, but even with selfish motives they can mut

24、ually benefit through collective decision making.不论是在政治中还是在市场中，人们都是追求自我利益的，即使都出于自利的动机，他们也 能够通过集体决策来实现共同利益。The definition of game theory 博弈理论的定义Game theory is the study of decisions in situations in which two or more rational participants have choices to make and the outcome depends on the choices ma

25、de by each.博弈理论是对特定情境中理性选择的研究，即两个或两个以上的理性参与者进行选择，而且 自己选择的结果还取决于其他人所作出的选择。Chapter 3 The policymaking processP37Translation fInterest groups may initiate their own policy proposals, perhaps in association with members of Congress of their staffs who share the same interest.利益集团可能会主动提出政策建议，或者与和他们具有共同利益

26、的国会成员联合在一起提出 政策建议。P40Media effects媒体的影响Media effects can be categorized asIdentifying issues and setting the agenda for policymakers,Influencing attitudes and values toward policy issues,Changing the behavior of voters san decision makers.为政策制定者确定问题并设定议程；影响观众对政策问题的态度及价值观；改变投票人和决策者的行为；Interest groups

27、 influence government policy in a variety of ways利益集团影响政府政策的各类途径Direct lobbyingCampaign contributions made throughpoliticalactioncommittees(PACs);Interpersonal contactsLitigation designed to force changes inpoliciesthroughthecourt system;Grassroots mobilization efforts to influence Congress and the

28、White House.直接游说；通过政治行动委员会在竞选运动中提供捐助；人际接触；通过法院系统，运用诉讼来施加压力进行变革；动员草根组织来影响国会和白宫的政策；Democrats民主党Republicans 共和党P49Translation fYour representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.你们的代表要奉献给你们的，不仅仅是他们的勤奋，还有他们的判断力；

29、如果他们放弃自己 明智的判断，屈从于你们的意见，则是对你们的背叛，而非服从于你们。Chapter 6 EducationTranslation fSocial science research suggests that educational performance is enhanced when the schools are perceived by children to be extensions or substitutes for their family. Academic achievement and graduation rates improve for all st

30、udents, but especially for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, in schools where there is a high expectation of achievement, an orderly and disciplined environment for learning, an emphasis on basic skills, frequent monitoring of students progress, and teacher-parent interaction and agreement on

31、 values and norms.社会科学研究表明，当学校被孩子们视为家庭的延伸或替代品时，教学成绩就会提高。对于 所有的学生，尤其是对于那些处于弱势地位的学生来说，学习成绩和毕业率的提高需要学校 对教学成绩有很高的期望，有强调秩序和纪律的学习环境，强调对基本技能的掌握，经常性 地监督学生的进步情况，教师和家长之间展开互动，并在价值标准方面取得一致。P138Definition of charter schools 特许学校One way to implement parental choice is the charter school; Community educational gro

32、ups sign a charter with their school district or state educational authority to establish their own school. 解决家长选择学校的一种途径是特许学校。社区教育团体与所在学区或者州政府的教育部门 签署一个“特许证”来建立他们自己的学校。Definition of magnet schools 兴趣学校Another common reform proposal is the magnet school. High schools might choose to specialize, some

33、 emphasizing math and science, others the fine arts, others business, and still others vocational training.另一个常见的改革建议是建立一些兴趣学校。高中可能需要选择一些主修课程，有些强化数 学和自然科学，有的专修美术，有的学习商业，有的甚至主攻职业培训。Definition of educational vouchers 教育券A more controversial version of parental choice involves educational vouchers that

34、 would be given to parents to spend at any school they choose, public or private. State governments would redeem the vouchers submitted by schools by paying specified amounts- perhaps the equivalent of the states per pupil educational spending.关于家长选择学校的一个更有争论的问题涉及发给家长的教育券，这种教育券能够在任何公 立或私立学校使用。州政府通过支

35、付一定数量的资金来兑换学校提交的教育券大约相当 于这个州花在每个学生身上的教育费用。Chapter 11 Civil rightsP242Translation fAll persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the Jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall

36、abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.凡出生或归化于合众国并受其管辖的人，皆为合众国及所居州的公民。任何州不得制定或 施行剥夺合众国公民的特权或豁免权的任何法律；非经正当法律程序，任何州不得剥夺任何 人的生命、自由或财产；不得否定法律对其管辖范围内的任何人的平等保护。The f