英语词汇资料学重要资料库归纳情况总结

1、English Lexicology（英语词汇学）Lexicology（词?匚学）：is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings ofwords.The Nature and Scope of English lexicology:English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic st

2、ructures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.The subjects that English Lexicology correlated with and extent toEnglish Lexicology is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology（ 形态学）, semantics（语义学）,etymology（ 词源学）,stylistics （文体论）and lexicography（ 词典学）The reason f

3、or a student to study English lexicology:According to the textbook, English Lexicology will definitely be beneficial for students of English.A good knowledge of morphological structures of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously

4、increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. The understanding and their sense relations will gradually raise

5、 their awareness of meaning and usage, and enable them use words more accurately and appropriately. A working knowledge of dictionaries will improve their skills of using reference books and raise their problem-solving ability and efficiency of individual study.Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and

6、vocabularyWord （词的定义）：A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. （1）a minimal free form of a language （2）a sound unity （3）a unit of meaning （4）a form that can function alone in a sentenceSound and meaning（声音与意义）：almost arbitrary,“ no logica

7、l relationship between thesound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itselfSound and form （读音和形式）：不统一的四个原因（1） the English alphabet was adoptedfrom the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other（2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than s

8、pelling over the years （3） some of the difference were creates by the early scribes（4） the borrowings is an importantchannel of enriching the English vocabularyVocabulary（词?匚）：all the words in a language make up its vocabularyClassification of English Words :By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasi

9、c vocabularyBy notion:content words&functional wordsBy origin:native words&borrowed wordsThe basic word stock（基本词?匚）：is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated overcenturies and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important pa

10、rt of vocabulary.The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock（基本词汇的特征）：1）All-National character（全民通用性 most important ） 2）Stability （相对稳定性）3）Productivity（多产性）4）Polysemy （多义性）5）Collocability （可搭配性）没有上述特征的 words: （1）Terminology（术语）（2）Jargon （行话）（3）slang （俚语） （4）Argot （暗语）（5） Dialectal words（方言）（6）

11、Archaisms （古语） Neologisms （新词语）:Neologisms means newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.（email）Content words/notional wordsfunctional words/empty words实词（cloud, run walk, never, five, frequently ） and 虚词（on, of, and, be, but ）Native Words and Borrowed WordsNativ

12、e words（本族语词）：known as Anglo-Saxon words （50,000-60,000）, are wordsbrought to Britain in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes. （mainstream of the basic word-stocks）.Two other features:neutral in style （2）frequent in useBorrowed words/Loan words（夕卜来语词）：words taken over from foreignlanguages.（80% of

13、 modern EV）4 Types of loan words:denizens（同化词）:（shirt from skyrta（ON）aliens （非同化词 / 夕卜来词）：are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling （kowtow （CH） 磕头）translation loans（ 译借词）:按其他语言方式组成英语long time no see （from China）semantic loans （借义词）： they are not borrowed with

14、reference to the form,but their meanings are borrowedthe development of the English VocabularyThe Indo-European Language Family(欧语系)The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages (8 大印欧语群)The Eastern set:The Balto-slavic Group(波罗的-斯拉夫语族)： Russian,Bulgarian,Polish,Czech etc.The Indo-Iranian Gr

15、oup(印度-伊朗语族)： Hindi,Bengali,Persian etc.(3)The Armenian Group (亚美尼亚语族)： Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group (阿尔巴尼亚语族)： Albanian.The Western set:(5)The Hellenic Group(古希腊语族)：Greek.(6)The Italian Group(意大利语族): Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish,portuguese,Romanian) etc.(7)The Celtic Group(凯尔特语

16、族)：Irish,Welsh,Breton etc.(8)The Germanic Group(日耳曼语族)：Flemish,German,Dutch,Scandinavian(Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic) etc.The Three Stages of Development of the English Vocabulary:1 Old English (450-1100) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000):was I high inflected language.2 Middle English (1150-150

17、0):retaines much fewer inflections3 Modern English (1500-up to now): in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lost with just a few expections.English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present

18、 analytic language.Modes of Vocabulary Development(词汇的发展模式):1)creation 创造新词： the formation of new words by using the existing materials,namely toots,affixes and other elements.(最重要方式 )2)semantic change旧词新义 :does not increase the number of word forms but createmany more new useages of the words.borro

19、wing 借用夕卜来词 ：constitute merely 6 to 7 percent of all new wordsReviving words or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant.Word Formation IMorpheme（ 词素）:the smallest functioning unit in the composition of wordsAllomorph（词素变体）:is a different variant

20、 form of a morpheme , differ in phonologicaland spelling form, but at the same in function and meaningType of Morpheme（ 词素的分类）Free Morphemes （自 由词素）：have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independe

21、nt）.Bound Morpheme（ 粘着语素）:A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） bound root（粘附词根）（2）Affix（词缀）Affixes can be put into two groups:1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）:affixes attached to the end of words to indicategrammatical relationships are inflectional

22、,thus known as inflectional morphemes.2）Derivational affixes（ 派生词缀）:A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix:An adjective suffix （形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever class is belongs to , the result will be an adjective.Free Morpheme =free root （自 由词根）Morpheme（词素）prefisuffixI Bound ro

23、ot bound derivational affix -inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）The differences between root and stem:A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morp

24、hemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.Word-Formation II( 构词法)I.Affixation 词缀法 (Derivation 派生法)：the formation of words by adding word-formaing or derivational affixes to stem.Prefixation( 前缀法):Its the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.1)Negative prefixes( 否定前缀

25、):un-,non-,in-,dis,a- ,il-,ir-,im-,etc.disobey(not obey)2)Reversative prefixes(逆反前缀)：un-,de- , dis- etc. unwrap(open)Pejorative prefixes: mis (贬义前缀)： mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.misconduct(bad behaviour)Prefixes of degree or size(程度前缀)：arch-,extra-,hyper-,macro-,micro-,mini-,out-,over-,sub-,super-,sur-,

26、ultra-,under-,ect. overweightPrefixes of orientation and attitude(倾向态度前缀)：contra-,counter-,anti-,pro-etc.anti-nuclear6)Locative prefixes(方位前缀)：extra-,fore-,inter-,intra-,tele-,trans-, etc.extraordinary(more than ordinary)Prefixes of time and order(时间和顺序前缀):fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc. monorail(oner

27、ail)Number prefixes(数字前缀):uni- , mono-, bi- , di-, tri-,multi- , poly- , semi-,etc.bilingual(concerning two languages)Miscellaneous prefixes(混杂前缀)： auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-.vice-chairman(deputychairman)(2)Suffixation (后缀法) :Its the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.1)noun suffixes

28、2)adjective suffixes 3)Adverb suffixes 4)verb suffixes2.Compounding 复合法 (also called composition )Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stemsCompounds are written in three ways: solid 连写(airmail) , hyphenated 带连字符 (air-conditioning)and open 分开写(air force, air raid)Formati

29、on of compounds(复合词的形式)(1) noun compounds : e.g. : air + plane = airplane,flower + pot = flower pot adjective compounds : e.g. acid + head = acid-head(3) verb compounds : e.g. house + keep = housekeep3.Conversion 转类法Conversion: is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to anothe

30、r class.(功能转换，又叫零派生.functional shift/zero-derivation )4.Blending 拼缀法Blending : is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. e.g: motor + hotel = motel, smoke + fog = smog, formula + translation = FORTRAN.Clipping 截短法Clipping:is to shorten a lon

31、ger word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead.e.g. plane from airplane, phone from telephone.四种形式：.Front clippings 删节前面 (phone from telephone).Back clippings 删节后面 (dorm from dormitory).Front and back clippings前后删节 (flu from influenza).Phrase clippings短语删节 (pop from popul

32、ar music).Acronymy首字母缩写法Acronymy:is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms.Initialism (首字母缩写词法)：initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter. e.g.:BBC(for British Broadcasting cor

33、poration)(2) Acronym (首字母拼音法):Acronyms are words formed from initial letters butpronounced as a normal word. E.g.:TEFL(teaching English as a foreign language)7.Back-formation(逆生法，逆构词)s the method ofBack-formation is considered to be the opposi te process of suffixation. It creating words by removing

34、 the supposed suffixes. (greed from greedy)8.Words From Proper Name（专有名词转成法）:Names of people, places, book, and tradenames （e.g.: sir watt siemens（人名）-watt （瓦特，电功率单位）Chapter 5 Word MeaningThe meanings of “ Meaning（ 意义的意义）Reference （所指）:It is the relationship between language and the word. It is the

35、arbitrary and conventional. It is a kind of abstraction, yet with the help of context, it can refer to something specific.Concept（概念）:which is beyond language, is the result of human cognition（ 认识）,reflecting the objective world in the human mind.Sense （意义）:It denotes the relationship inside the lan

36、guage. The sense of an expressicis its place in a system of semantic relationshi ps with other expressions in the language.Motivation （理据）:It accounts for the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.） Onomatopoeic motivation（拟声理据）:words whose sounds suggest their meaning, forthese w

37、ords were creates by imitating the natural sounds or noises. Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. E.g.: bang, ping-pong, ha ha.2）Morphological motivation（形态理据）:multi-morphemic words and the meaning of manyare the sum total of the morphemes combines. E.g.: airmail, miniski

38、rt . 例夕卜： black market, ect.3）Semantic motivation（词义理据）： refers to the mental associations suggested by theconceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection between the literal sense and figurative sense of the word. E.g:the foot of the mountain（foot）4）Etymological motivation（词源理据）:the histor

39、y of the word explains the meaning of theword. E.g:pen-featherTypes of meaning（词义的类另1J ）I.Grammatical Meaning（语法意义）:indicates the grammatical concept or relationships（becomes important only in actual context）.Lexical Meaning（词汇意义）（Lexical meaning and grammatical meaning make up the word-meaning）Lexi

40、cal meaning has 2 components 内容：Conceptual meaning（ 概念意义）and associative meaning（关联意义）Conceptual meaning（ 概念意义 ）:also known as denotative meaning（ 外延意义）is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word-meaning.Associative meaning（ 关联意义）:is the secondary meaning supplemented to the co

41、nceptual meaning.4types:Connotative （内涵 意义）：the overtones or associations suggested by theconceptual meaning, traditionally known as connotations.（例如 母亲“经常与爱“关心“温柔”联系起来） Stylistic （文体意义）： many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts.Affective （感情意义）：indicate

42、s the speaker s attitude towards thrpbirag）nin question.这种情感价值观分两类：褒义和贬义 appreciative & pejorativeCollocative （搭配意义）： is the part of the word-meaning suggested by the wordsbefore or after the word in discussion.Chapter 6 -Sense relation and semantic field（语义关系和语义场）Polysemy（多义关系）Two approached to pol

43、ysemy（多义关系的两种研究方法）：.diachronic approach（ 历时方法）:from the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. First meaning is the primary meaning , the later meanings are called derived meanings. synchronic approach

44、（ 共时方法）:synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a certain historical period of time.基本意义是central meaning ,次要意义是 derived meaning.Two processes of development（词义的两种发展类型）：radiation （辐射型）：is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at t

45、hecentre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rayes. （e.g: face, neck）concatenation （连锁型）:is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word movegradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is not a sign of connection between the sense that

46、 is finally developed and that which the term had at the beginning.（e.g:treacle）In radiation, each of the derived meaning is directly connected to the primary meaning.In concatenation, each of the later meaning is related only to the preceding one like chains. Though the latest sense can be traced b

47、ack to the original, there is no direct connection in between.They are closely related, being different stages of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）:words differ

48、ent in meaning but either identical both insound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling.Types of homonyms（同音同形异义关系的类别）1） Perfect homonyms（完全同音同形异义词）：words identical both in sound and spelling,but different in meaning.2）Homographs（同形异义词）：words identical only in spelling, but different in

49、 sound andmeaning.（最多最常见）3） Homophones （同音异义词） ：words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning.Origins of homonyms （ 同形同音异义词的来源 ）change in sound and spelling : （eare-ear, lang-long, langian-long）borrowing （feria-fair, beallu-ball, baller-ball ）（同音同形异义词和多义词的区别）:Shortening（缩略）：（ad

50、-advertisement,）The differentiation of Homonyms from Polysemes 1）The fundamental difference : Homonymy refers to different words which happen to share the same form and polysemy are the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.词源）：Homonymys are from different语义关联 ）:The various2）O

51、ne important criterion is to see their etymology（ sources. Polysemant is from the same source.3）The second principle consideration is semantic relatedness（ meanings of polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning. Meanings of different homonymys have nothing to do with one another.

52、 In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meaning all listed under one headword whereas homonyms are listed as separate entries.Rhetoric features of homonyms（同形同音异义词的修辞特色）:As homonyms are identicalin sound or spelling, particularly homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect o

53、f, say, humor, sarcasm or ridicule.Synonymy（同义关系 ）:one of two or more words in the English language which have thesame or very nearly the same essential meaning .Types of Synonymy（同义词的类别）：Absolute synonyms （完全同义词） ：also known as complete synonyms are words whichare identical in meaning in all aspect

54、s, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. Absolute synonyms are restricted to highly specialized vocabulary in lexicology.relative synonyms（相对同义词）：also called near-synonyms are similar or nearly thesame in denotation, but embrace differen

55、t shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.（e.g:change/alter/vary, stagger/reel/totter, strange/odd/queer,idle/lazy/indolent）Sources of synonyms（同义词的来源）：1）Borrowing （借词）： 最重要的来源 （room-chamber, foe-enemy, help-aid, leave-depart, wise-sage, buy-purchase）2）Dialects and regional English

56、（方言和地区英语）3）Figurative and euphemistic use of words （单词的修饰和委婉用法）:occupation/profession-walk of life, dreamer-star-gazer, drunk-elevated, lie-distort of fact.4）Coincidence with idiomatic expressions（与习惯表达一致） :win-gain the upper hand,decide- make up one s mind, fin-get through, hesitate-be in two minds

57、, help-lend one a hand.Discrimination of Synonymsdifference in denotation夕卜延不同.Synonyms may differ in the range and intensity ofmeaning.(rich-wealthy, work-toil, want-wish-desire)difference in connotation 内涵不同.By connotation we mean the stylistic and emotive colouring of words. Some words share the

58、same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.( 借词：answer-respond, storm-tempest, wood-forest, handy-manual,unlike-dissimilar, homely-domestic, fleshy-carnal. 中 性 词 ： policeman-constable-bobby-cop, ask-beg-request. 古 语词、 诗歌：ire/anger, bliss-happiness, forlorn-distresses, dire-dreadfu

59、l, list-listen, enow-enough, save-expect, mere-lake )difference in application. Many words are synonymous in meaning but difference in usage in simple terms. They form different collocations and fit into difference sentence patterns. (allow sb. to do sth.- let sb. do sth. / answer the letter-reply t

60、o the letter)Antonymy (反义关系 ):it is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning.Types of Antonyms:1)contradictory terms ( 矛盾反义词 ):these antonyms truly represent oppositeness of meaning. 特点： The assertion of one is the denial of the other. Such a