英语语言学大全课件

1、语言学知识点 Mr.PotatoI 语言学导论 II 语言学主要分支学科 III 语言学的流派和理论 I 语言学导论 1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征） 2. Language Families (世界语言分类) 3. important distinctions in linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念) 4. scope of linguistics (语言学的研究范围)LOREM IPSUM DOLOR1. design feature of language（语言的定义特征) defining properties of hu

2、man language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication 1. design feature of language语言定义特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Creativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性) 1）Arbitrariness(任意性): 定义：the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relatio

3、nship to their meaning. 举例：书, book, livre喜欢，like，aimerLOREM IPSUM DOLORLOREM IPSUM DOLOR2）Duality（二层性）: 定义：the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.举例： Sounds syllables words phrases clauses sentences texts/

4、discoursesLOREM IPSUM DOLOR3） Creativity/Productivity（创造性）: 定义：Language can be used to create new meanings because of its duality 举例1：/k/ ,/a:/, /p/- carp or park举例2：England, defeated, FranceEngland defeated France.France defeated England.4）Displacement（替代性）: 定义：Human languages enable their users to

5、 symbolize something which are not present at the moment of communication. 5） Cultural Transmission（文化传递性）: 定义：language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct. 反例：印度狼孩LOREM IPSUM DOLOR3. Design feature 定义特征1)Arbitrariness（任意性）2)Duality(二层性)3)Cre

6、ativity/Productivity(创造性)4)Displacement（移位性）5)Cultural Transmission(文化传递性) 如何记忆: 五性，创意遗传LOREM IPSUM DOLOR4. Important Distinctions in Linguistics (语言学研究中几对重要的概念)1) descriptive & prescriptive 2) synchronic & diachronic3) langue & parole4) competence & performanceLOREM IPSUM DOLOR1) Descriptive （描述性）

7、vs. Prescriptive （规定性） Descriptive: describing how things are.prescriptive: prescribing how things ought to beImportant Distinctions in Linguistics举例：Dont say X.People dont say X.The first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.LOREM IPSUM DOLOR2). Synchronic（共时性） vs.

8、 Diachronic （历时性）synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation. diachronic: the study of a language through the course of its history. LOREM IPSUM DOLOR举例：研究1800年的英语发音 Synchronic studies (共时性研究)研究1800-1900的法语语法变化Diachronic studies (历时研究)2. 世界语言分类2. 世界语言分类3). langue（语言） & parole （言语）T

9、heorist：Saussure（索绪尔）, father of modern linguistics langue: abstract linguistic systemparole: actual realization of langue Important Distinctions in Linguistics Important Distinctions in Linguistics举例：汉语系统langue每个中国人在不同具体场景中说出的具体话语paroleImportant Distinctions in Linguistics4) Competence（语言能力） and pe

10、rformance （语言运用）theorist: Chomsky(乔姆斯基) competence: users knowledge of rules about the linguistic system.performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in concrete situations.LOREM IPSUM DOLOR5. Scope of Linguistics (语言学的研究范围)1）按研究内容来分2）按研究导向来分语言学分类-按研究内容分语言学分类-按研究内容分语言学分类-按研究导向分语言学分类-按研究内容分语

11、言学分类-按研究内容分LOREM IPSUM DOLOR考点: 1.语音学(phonetics)和音系学(phonology)的定义和区别2.语音学重要概念: 清音和浊音3.音系学重要概念: 音子，音位, 超音段特征 LOREM IPSUM DOLORPhonetics studies all speech sounds in human languages: how they are produced, transmitted and how they are received. Phonology: aims to discover how speech sounds in a langu

12、age form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 区别: meaning(是否研究和表达意义有关的语音）LOREM IPSUM DOLOR举例:too 和 tea 中的 /t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部语音学要研究这种/t/发音的不同之处, 音系学不研究Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceive

13、d. 语音学分类articulatory phonetics(发音语音学): speakers production acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）: transmissions mediumauditory phonetics(听觉语音学): receivers reception 如何记忆phonetics和phonolgy的区别:联想: mathematics, physics, mechanics phonetics 语言学，-ics科学性更强 geology, sociology, astrology phonology 音系学，-ology人文性更强 Speec

14、h organs How speech sounds are madePosition of the vocal folds(声带): voicing(浊音) and voiceless (清音)LOREM IPSUM DOLORVoiceless(清音)：vocal cords are drawn wide apart, letting the air stream go through without causing obstruction 清音举例：p,s,tVoicing/Voiced（浊音）：vocal cords held together, letting the air str

15、eam vibrates 浊音: b,z,dLOREM IPSUM DOLORThe distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.LOREM IPSUM DOLOR音系学定义：study of ho

16、w speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. 音系学重要概念: phone音子，phoneme音位 (音系研究的基本单位)supra-segmental features超音段特征LOREM IPSUM DOLORPhone(音子)：a phonetic unit; the speech sounds we hear and produce during communication are all p

17、hones 举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子LOREM IPSUM DOLOR Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. 举例： tea 和 sea, /t/和/s/是两个不同的音位morphemeLORE

18、M IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonology?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonology?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme(音位) LOREM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme LOR

19、EM IPSUM DOLORWhat is the point of departure of phonetics?A. phone B. sound C. voice D. phoneme Suprasegmental features (超音段特征)Suprasegmental features: phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments . The principal suprasegmentals are: LOREM IPSUM DOLORSupra-segmental features (超音段特征)：

20、 stress （重音）举例: perfect (adj) 和 perfect (v)tone (声调)/pitch (音高): 定义: sound feature which are caused by the differing rate of vibration of the vocal folds.举例: m妈, m麻, m马， m骂比较：英语单词，如meLOREM IPSUM DOLORintonation （语调）：pitch, stress, and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in iso

21、lation. 举例: Morphology 形态学1. 学科定义2. 语素的定义和分类3. 词的分类（classification of words）形态学研究的基本单位1. morpheme(语素）. The most basic element of meaning in language，an element that cannot be further divided into smaller units without altering its meaning.举例：ball football balls Types of MorphemesFree morphemes vs. B

22、ound morphemes（自由语素和黏着语素）: Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation.Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Types of Bound MorphemeInflectional morpheme (屈折语素)=inflectional affix(屈折词缀)：change the grammatical meaning (num

23、ber, aspect, case, tense) Derivational morpheme（派生语素）=inflectional affix (派生词缀）: change the lexical meaning dis+like+s derivational free inflectional morpheme light+en+ed free derivational inflectional morpheme LOREM IPSUM DOLORDerivational morpheme(改变词义): 改变词义：dis-, un-, multi-, micro-改变词性：en-, -fu

24、ll, -mentInflectional morpheme（改变语法含义）:改变名称的性，数，格：-ess, -s,改变动词的时, 态，体: -ing, -ed, 改变形容词的级：-er, -est词的分类-按构词法分LOREM IPSUM DOLOR如何区分派生词（derivational word）和 合成词(compound word) : 拆开后看各个组成的语素能否都单独成词，如果可以，就是合成词，如果不能就是派生词。Businessman: business + manPlayboy: play + boy Mouthful: mouth + fulLighten: light +

25、 en词的分类-按词义分词的分类-按开放性分词的分类-按在句子重要性分考点1. 定义2. 句法范畴3. 句子类型 Syntax 句法LOREM IPSUM DOLOR1. Syntax定义：: studies internal structure of sentence and rules of sentence-formationLOREM IPSUM DOLORCategory(范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such

26、as sentence, a noun phrase or a verb (起相同作用的一类语言单位)Syntactical category(句法范畴): a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in sentence-formation. （在句子构成中起相同作用的一类语言单位）Syntactical category(句法范畴)Word-lexical categoryPhrase-phrasal categoryClause-clausal categorySentenceLexic

27、al Category 词法范畴=Parts of Speech 词类 phrase specifier head complement a car five meters away Sentence Types(句子类型)simple Sentence complexnon-simple compound72LOREM IPSUM DOLOR4. 句子分类：Simple sentence 简单句Coordinate sentence 并列句Complex sentence 复杂句LOREM IPSUM DOLORsimple sentence 简单句定义：also called indepe

28、ndent clause, contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete thought. LOREM IPSUM DOLOR练习：Jim and Mike play football every afternoon. (simple sentence) Mary goes to the library and studies every day. (coordinate sentence)LOREM IPSUM DOLORcoordinate sentence并列句: contains two independent c

29、lauses joined by a coordinator(并列连词) such as and, or, but etc. Coordinators are often preceded by a comma. 例句: I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to speak English. Lily went to play football, but Maria went shopping.LOREM IPSUM DOLORYou have to do it one way or the other.Simple sentenceTh

30、e workers were cheerful, or at least they appeared to be cheerful.Coordinate sentenceLOREM IPSUM DOLORcomplex sentence 定义：A complex sentence has an independent clause joined with one or more dependent clauses by one or more subordinators(从属连词) such as if, when, because, althoug. LOREM IPSUM DOLORAs

31、he is growing old, he seldom goes out.He is growing old, whereas he becomes healthier.如何区分并列和复杂句-看连词表示的关系 并列，选择和转折关系-并列句时间，条件，原因和让步关系-复杂句 Semantics考点：1. 定义：study of meaning2. 两种基本意义：reference指称和sense涵义3. 五种词语语义关系Ludwig Wittgenstein: The meaning of a word is its use in the language. Meaning is studie

32、d by making detailed analyses of the way words and sentences are used in specific contexts.Reference（指称）: how language refers to the real physical world (语言指代外部物质世界)Sense（涵义）: inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is abstract and the meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. (语言形式的内在意义)

33、conceptsymbolizes refers tosymbol referent(word) stands for (object) Synonymy 同义Synonymy 同义: sameness or similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义分类举例dialectical synonym地域同义词：举例: fall and autumn, flat and apartment stylistic synonym风格同义词：举例: cop and police, kid a

34、nd offspringcollocational synonym搭配同义词：举例: accuse of, charge with, rebuke forSemantically different synonym语义稍有不同的同义词: 举例: surprise and astound, blame and rebukeAntonymy 反义Antonymy 反义: oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are called antonyms. Antonymy 反义关系分类：gradable antonymy

35、等级反义complementary antonymy互补反义converse antonymy反向反义Gradable antonymy等级反义young -middle-aged- oldbig -middle-sized- smallgood-average-bad Complementary antonymy互补反义alive : deadmale : femalepresent : absentinnocent : guiltyodd : evenpass : failboy : girlhit : miss Converse antonymy反向反义 buy : selllend :

36、 borrowgive : receiveparent : childhusband : wifeteacher : studentabove : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employee Hyponymy 上下义关系Hyponymy上下义: refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.Superordinate/hypernym上义词: the more general termHy

37、ponym下义词: the more specific termLOREM IPSUM DOLOR举例:hypernym上义词: animal Hyponym下义词: bird, fish, tiger, cat如何记忆:hyper-向上 hype 炒作 hypo-向下 hypothesis 假设 Animalbird fish insect animal human animal tiger lion elephant .Polysemy 一词多义Polysemy: the same one word has more than one meaning. Such a word is cal

38、led polysemic word.举例:Fish:1. 鱼2. 鱼肉3. 水生动物4. 捕鱼5. 寻找LOREM IPSUM DOLORHomonymy同音/同形异义词 : words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Identical in sound: homophones 同音词Identical in spelling: homograph 同形词Identical in both: complet

39、e homonyms 同音同形词LOREM IPSUM DOLORhomophones 同音词：举例: knight and night, piece and peace homograph 同形词举例: tear (v) and tear (n), lead (v) and lead (n)complete homonyms 同音同形词: fast (adj) and fast (n) LOREM IPSUM DOLOR如何区分同音同形和一词多义现象: beauty, fish, ball, scalebeauty: 美丽；美女fish: 鱼；鱼肉；水生动物；捕鱼；寻找ball: 球；舞会s

40、cale: 规模；鱼鳞 看其多个意义之间是否有关联，如果有就是一词多义，没有就是同音同形词Pragmatics 语用学 考点:定义和与语义学的区别：study of meaning in context or in use言语行为理论（两位理论家和三种行为）会话原则 2. Speech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Main Idea: things can be done with wordsConstatives(叙事句) vs. performatives（施为句）Constative

41、s（叙事句）: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is, eg: I go to the park every Sunday.I teach English. LOREM IPSUM DOLORPerformatives（施为句）: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the

42、 uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false.Performative verbs: name, bet, etc.Three Speech Acts (三种言语行为)A locutionary act (言内行为): the act of uttering words, phrase, sentences. It is an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and

43、phonology. An illocutionary act（言外行为）: an act of expression speakers intention; it is an act performed in saying something.A perlocutionary act（言后行为）: the act preformed by or as a result of saying, the effects on the hearer.三种话语行为-举例老师对学生说: You have left the door open.Locutionary act(言内行为): the act

44、of uttering the words of “you”, “have”, “left”, “the”, “door”, “open”Illocutinary act(言外行为): the act of expressing the teachers intention of asking the student to close the door.Perlocutionary act(言后行为): the effect of the utterance: student goes to close the door Illocutionary Act Theory美国哲学家John Se

45、arle (约翰-塞尔， 1932-)在Austin理论基础上把言外行为进一步分为5类：陈述（assertives），指示(directives)，承诺(commissives)，表达(expressives)，宣告（declaratives）103 Conversational Implicature（会话含义理论）Theorist：英国语言学家Herbert Paul Grice (格莱斯，1913-1988)Main Idea: People do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative

46、 Principle (CP，合作原则)Maxim of Quality（数量准则）Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）Maxim of Relation（关系准则）Maxim of Manner（方式准则）The Cooperative Principle (CP，合作原则)Maxim of Quality（数量准则）Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）Maxim of Relation（关系

47、准则）Maxim of Manner（方式准则）LOREM IPSUM DOLORMaxim of Quality（数量准则）Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）：Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange).Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Maxim of Relation（关系准则）Maxim of Manner（方式准则）LOREM IPSUM DO

48、LORMaxim of Quality（数量准则）Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）Maxim of Relation（关系准则）：Be relative.Maxim of Manner（方式准则）LOREM IPSUM DOLORMaxim of Quality（数量准则）Maxim of Quantity（质量准则）Maxim of Relation（关系准则）Maxim of Manner(方式准则)： Be perspicuous.Avoid obscurity of expression.Avoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.Macro-

49、Linguistics宏观语言学LOREM IPSUM DOLORLOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社会语言学1.定义2.语言变体 language variety3.双语 LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社会语言学1定义：The sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the

50、users of language live.Speech语言变体双语LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社会语言学定义Speech variety/language variety 语言变体: refer to any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers.双语LOREM IPSUM DOLORPidgin(洋泾浜语/皮钦语)：a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it

51、is used by people who speaks different languages for restricted purposes such as trading. 上海洋泾浜 LOREM IPSUM DOLOR上海话中的洋泾浜英语“蹩脚”（BILGE，船底污水，引申为肮脏的、下三滥的、劣质的）“瘪三”（BEG SIR，乞丐先生，用来形容叫花子、难民、逃荒者等各式穷人，后引申为最广泛的骂人用语之一。“赤佬”是英语“CHEAT”（欺骗）和中文“佬”的混生词语，一个鲁迅时代最流行的洋泾浜俚语（隐语）。From pidgin to creoles(克里奥语):Pidgin has be

52、come the primary language as a result of intermarriage, it is spoken at home and learned by children as a mother tongue.举例. French-based Haitian Creole, English based jamaica Creole119LOREM IPSUM DOLORSociolinguistics 社会语言学定义语言变体双语LOREM IPSUM DOLORBilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia (高低双语现象)Multilingualism（

53、多语现象）LOREM IPSUM DOLORBilingualism(双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.举例：Canada(French and English), Wales (Welsh and English)Diglossia (高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）LOREM IPSUM DOLORBilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia (高低双

54、语现象): a linguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.举例：Switzerland: High German as the standard (public, official)Swiss German as the vernacular (informal, daily)Multilingualism（多语现象）LOREM IPSUM DOLOR

55、Bilingualism(双语现象)Diglossia (高低双语现象)Multilingualism（多语现象）: a linguistic situation in which more than two languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers.举例：Singapore (English, Chinese, Malay) LOREM IPSUM DOLORBilingualism(双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two standard langu

56、ages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers Diglossia (高低双语现象): a linguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to playMultilingualism（多语现象）: a linguistic situation more than two varieties a

57、re used either by an individual or by a group of speakers LOREM IPSUM DOLOR人类语言学 Anthropological Linguistics定义: study of the relationship between culture and language假说：Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (萨丕尔-沃尔夫假说)：structure of the language people use influences the way they think and behave (简言之, 语言影响人的思想行为)S

58、apir-Whorf HypothesisEdward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897-1941)Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Li

59、nguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.127English: horseshoeFrench: fer a cheval iron for horseGerman: hufeisen hoof ironThe Eskimos have countless words for snow. The Arabs, for camels.128LOREM IPSUM DOLOR心理语言学Psycholinguistics: the study of the mental process of language comprehension and production.计算机语言学Computational Linguistics: study of the use of computers to process and produce human language. 语言学理论流派LOREM IPSUM DOLORLOREM IPSUM DOLOR考点：四大