语言教学的基本概念总结1

1、clearing the ground第一部分 扫除Chapter oneL1L1 terms are used to indicate,of all,trson has acquired the languagein infancy and early childhood and generally within the family. Secondly, the L1terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language. A language is a basis for sociolinguistic ide

2、ntity.sL1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant orpreferred use when the distinction has to be made, wit

3、h the terms cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.language to首先，L1 术语用来表示，一个人在婴儿期和儿童早期获得了语言，一般在家庭。其次，L1 术语标志着语言熟练的特征水平。一个人的第一语言是社会认同的基础。L1 语言也被称为母语或第一语言，因此，它会是最好的来保留术语“母语”为早期儿童语言的习得和“第一语言”为当必须做出区分时占优势的或优先使用的语言。第一语言术语包括这两种用法，允许根据上下文作出明确的区别。L2The term second language has

4、two meanings., it refers to the chronology oflanguage learning. A second language is any language acquired latern the nativelanguage. This definition deliberay leaves open how much later second languagesare acquired. At one extreme the second language learning pros takes place at anearly age when th

5、e native languaged is still rudimentary. At the other, it maytake place in adult life when the L1 acquisition pros is virtually completed orslowed down. Or, it may take place at any stage betn these two extremes.Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of languagedin comparis

6、on wiprimary or dominant language.his sense, second languageindicates a lower level of actual or beved proficiency. Hence second means also weaker or secondary.术语第二语言有两层意思。首先，它是指语言学习的年代，第二语言是任何晚于母语习得的语言。这个定义故意留下第二语言是在第一语言习得多久后习得的。在一个的二语学习过程发生在早期的时候，母语令仍然是基本的。另外，它可能发生在成年母语习。其次，得的过程实质上就是完成或放缓。或者，它可能发生

7、在任何阶段，这两者之间的二语是用来指与一个主要的或占主导地位的语言相比，语言命令的水平。在这个意义上，二语表明实际的或相信的水平较低的水平。因此，秒意味着“较弱”或“次要”。 BilingualismBilingualism can be usedwo situations. When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”,we are making a sement about the objectivity or legal sus of two languageshat country. Itdoes not nesarily meant eve

8、ry individualhat country is bilingual. It may mean no morent some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and otheople are nativespeakers of the other language.The second use of the term, namelyt ofal bilingualism, imps (a)notionsofmanner of language acquisition and (b) level of profici

9、encyhe two languages. With regard to(a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning proswo languages which isogous tod,or native language acquisition in one language. With reference to the level ofbeing bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiencywo languages. Inmore tech

10、nical discuss the use of the concept of bilingualismhis respecs changed. Ithas tended to be more broadly defined sot any proficiency levelbe referred to as bilingualism.oren one language canSecond versus foreign languageIn contrasting second and foreign language there is todayconsensust a nesarydist

11、inction is to be made betn a non-native language learnt and used within one country towhich the term second language has been appd, and a non-native language learnt and used withreference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the termforeign language is commonly g

12、iven. A second language usually has offifunction within a country which a foreign language has not.l sus or a recognizedThe pures of second language are quite different from foreign language. Second languageis needed for the full participationhe political or economical life of the nation since it is

13、 theoffil language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety ofpuresind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much moreenvironmental supportn a foreign language whose speech

14、community may be thousands ofaway. A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measurescompensating for the lack of environmental support. By contrast, a second language is often learntinformally because of its widespread use withhe environment.ernational language /ranation

15、al languageSecond and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community orcommunities as a territorial reference or contact group.ernational orranational language lackthis characteristic. Thus, Englishwhich has the sus of an offil language bus nospecified reference group, is learnt a

16、s a means ofranational communication. If English is learntany countries across the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speakingterritories, but as a means ofernational communication across national boundaries amongspeakers of other language. For this role the termernational l

17、anguage has been proed.Language learningThe psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge. It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think. Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.From theo

18、f the psychology of learning, learning has been approachedwomain ways: (1) through theoretical and experimental studies and (2) through empirical studies ineducational settings.With regards to the (1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished. The, derivedfrom the British assotionist school

19、 of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view ofman. Moderntonehe development of thisition are Watsons behaviorism, Skinnersoperate conditioning, etc. Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stim

20、uli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept. The psychology oflearning, according to this viewpo , therefore, is a study of learning phenomena whichdisregards thelearner.entions, the thinking, the conscious planning andernal proses of theThe othe

21、r trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an earlyrepresenive was Gestalt psychology. It had laid emphasis on innateanizing principles inhuman perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in sol conduct. Festalttheory, it is imsible to represent h

22、uman learning without concepts of subjective experience,such as the sudden click of understanding. Gestalt psychology was able to throw light onperceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitiveexperienanization.of the learner with such concepts as whole and p

23、art, field, structure, andWithout ne sarily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning. They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which em

24、erges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individuals cognitive structure.As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigatedlearning problems from the appd side in practical learning situations

25、. Critics have deplored thewide gap betlearning.n the classroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study ofCategories of the psychology of learning, commonly appd to formal educational activities,refer to (a) characteristics of the learners and individual differenamong learners, (b)

26、differentkinds of learning, (c) the learning pros and (d)es of learning.(a)Among learner characteristics, factorst are frequently presentedhe literature include: (1)the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning; (2)the influence ofheredity and environment on abilities and achi

27、evement; (3) specific aptitudes for particularlearning tasks, for exle, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc. (4) the influenceof home and community on motivations and attitudes.(b)What is being learns been frequently expressed as three psychological categories. They areconceptual and v

28、erbal learning, skill learning and affective and sol learning.roduced. One is on the(c)As for the pros of learning, a number of distinctions have beentime-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning; learning prosesmay further differhe degree of awareness or volitional cont

29、rol on the part of the learner:the conscious learning and the latent learning, the distinctionroduced by Krashen betnnlanguage learning and language acquisition refers to this identification. The contrast betmechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptuaof the learning

30、task by learners.derstanding(d) Lastly, the needs of assessing thee of learning have led to the development of tests ofachievement and proficiency.Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for theassessment of l

31、anguage learning.Learning and acquisitionThe American appd linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition to describe secondlanguage learning which isogous to the way in which a child acquires hislanguage,tis naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language developmentpar

32、ticularly in formal school-like settings.A disadvantage of Krashens terminology ist it runs counter to the terms used in psychologywhich, as we have noted, comprise Krashens acquisition and learning as different ways oflearning.Language teachingIt can be defined as the activities which areended to b

33、ring about language learning. Allt need to be poed out ist language teaching is more widelyretedn instructing alanguage class. Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualizedinstruction, self-study, computer-assisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio o

34、revi.Chapter two: theory and practiceDefinition of theoryThe word theory is usedhree fairly distinct but related senses. When we speak of theoryof art, or educational theory, the term theory is usedheand widesse (T1). It refers tothe systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, fo

35、r exeducation.le, art, music, orSecond, under T1, it issible to subsume different schools of thought or theories (T2), eachwith their own amptions,tulates, principles, ms and concepts. What we often looselyreferred to as language teaching method. Lastly,he natural and human scienthe concept oftheory

36、 is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3) as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheseshave been verified by observation or experiment. The theory of evolution is a case in po.tCriteria for a good theoryWe can identify the following criter(1) usefulness and applicabilityrelevant to theory development

37、 in language teachingSince a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities. It shouldbe useful, effective or applicable. It proves its usefulness by making sense of planning, decimaking, and practice. It should help decimaking both on the broadolicy level and at th

38、elevel of classroom activity. The crul test of language teaching theory is its effect.erlanguageAnerlanguage is an emerging linguistic systems been developed by a learner of asecond language (or L2) who has note fully proficient yet but is only approximating thelanguage: preserving some features of

39、theirlanguage (or L1) in speaking or writing thelanguage and creating innovations. Anerlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物质的, 特殊的, 异质的) based on the learners experienwith the L2. It can ossify in any of itsdevelopmental stages. The learner creates anerlanguage using different learning strategiechas la

40、nguage transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.erlanguage is based on the theoryt there is a psychological structure latent in thebrain which iivated when one attempts to learn a second language. Larry Selinkroedthe theory oferlanguage in 1972, notingt in a given situation the utteranproduce

41、d by thelearner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey thesame meaning. This comparison reveals a separainguistic system. This system can be observedwhen studying the utteranof the learners who attempt to produce alanguage norm.To study the psychological

42、prolearner with two things:ses involved one should compare theerlanguage of theUtteran Utterant language.he native language to convey the same message made by the learnerhelanguage to convey the same message made by the native speaker oferlanguage yields new linguistic variety.erlanguage is the basi

43、s for diversification oflinguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence. Dialects formed byerlanguage are theproduct of a need to communicate betn speakers with varying linguistic ability, and withincreasederaction wimore standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor ofa s

44、tandard dialect.dialect acquisition.his way,erlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language orStephenKrashen &SLAStephen Krashen is professor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist,educational researcher, and activist. Krashen has contributed to the fields

45、of second languageacquisition (SLA), bilingual education, and reading. He is credited withroducing variousinfluential concepts and termshe study of second language acquisition, including thedistinction betn acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the AffectiveFilter, and the

46、Natural Order Hypothesis.The term language acquisition became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive learning. However, second language acquisition or SLA hase established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.Though SLA is often viewed as par

47、t of appd linguistics, it is typically concerned with thelanguage system and learning proses themselves, whereas appd linguistics may focus moreon the experienof the learner, particularlyhe classroom. Additionally, SLA has mostlyexamined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language wi

48、th little formal training orteaching.The monitor theory理论It was put forward by Krashen five hypotheses:he late 1970s. The theory consists of the followingThe acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claimst adult learners of a secondlanguage have two ways of develotheir competence acquisition and

49、learning.The basic distinction betn language acquisition and language learning is whetherthe learnays a conscious attention to the rules of thelanguage. Acquisitionrefers to the subconscious pros in which learners develop their language proficiency.Learning refers to the conscious pros in which lear

50、ners acquire the knowledge ofrules of thelanguage.The monitor hypothesis Different functions According to Krashen, acquisition isresponsible for the fluency of the utteranproduced by speakers while learning isresponsible for the accuracy of the speeches or passages. Three conditions In order to perf

51、orm this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and tohave clear knowledge of the rules of thelanguage.The natural order hypothesis Same order The hypothesis claimst foreignlanguage learners

52、 acquire the rules of thelanguagehe same order no matterwhere, when and how they are learning the language. Speed In Krashens poofview, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition. It can only facili e the speed of acquisition.The input hypothesis Language input and lan

53、guage acquisition According toKrashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding messages or receiving comprehensive input. They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input. They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level alongthe natu

54、ral order, by understanding inpontaining i+1.t is to say, language isacquired by peoples comprehenof inputt is slightlytheir current level.The affective filter hypothesis Pure It attempts to explain the variation inspeed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group. The three affectiv

55、efactors which determines the speed of sucs motivation,self-confidence, andanxiety. Influence of the three factors learners with high motivation, self-confidence,and low anxiety will do much bettern thoset are unmotivated, lacking inself-confidence and concerned too much with failure.t is to say, le

56、arners wi high affective filter.lowaffective filter will get more inputn learners wiErrorErrorysisysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues(Corder, 1967). Errorysis wasternative to contrastiveysis, an approach influencedby behaviorism through which appd linguists

57、sought to use the formal distinctions betn thelearnersand second languages to predict errors. Errorysis showedt contrastiveysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects havebeen incorporatedo the study of language transfer. A key finding of errorysis has b

58、eentmany learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferenlanguage.about the rules of the newErrorysts distinguish betn errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not.They often seek to develop a typology of errors. Error can be classified according to basic type:omissive, add

59、itive, substitutive or related to word order. They can be classified by how apparentthey are: overt errorch as I angry are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors areevident only in context. Closely related to this is the classification according to, thebreadth of context which theyst mus

60、t examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance whichmust be changed in order to fix the error. Errors may also be classified according to the level oflanguage: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on. They maybe assessed according to the degree to which th