英语语言学知识点

1、Halidaychildlanguage.Macrofunctions:ideational,interpersonal,textual.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics-thestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,itsconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.Phonology-thestudyofsoundssystemstheinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurin

2、alanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology-Itsabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-itsasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics-Itssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics-thestudyofm

3、eaningincontextofwords.Thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.Sociolinguisticsthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics-theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolangu

4、ageteachingandlearning.Chapter2Phonologythreebranchesofphonetics:Articulatorydescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-studiesthephys

5、icalpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.OrgansofSpeech:Pharyngealcavity咽腔Oralcavity口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasalcavity鼻腔Broadtranscription:Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.(leaf/l/)Narrowtranscription:Thetranscriptionofspee

6、chsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.(dark/l/)PhoneticsandPhonology差异:areconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage-thespeechsounds.Phonetics:itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;phoneticfeaturestheypossess;howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonology:itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinala

7、nguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.rulesinPhonology:Sequentialrules:Rulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Assimilationrules:Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophones

8、similar.Deletionrule:Itsaphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.Suprasegmental超切分特色:Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.(intonation:whenpit

9、ch,stressandsoundlentharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation./tone:Tonearepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Toneisasuprasegmentalfeature.)Chapter3Morphologyopenclasswords:newwordscanbeaddedtotheseclassesregularly.Suchasnouns,verbs,adjectivesandadve

10、rbs.SuchasBeatnik.Closedclasswords:conjunctions,prepositions,articlesandpronounsconsistofthegrammaticalorfunctionalwords.Thenumberofsuchwordsissmallandstablesincefewnewwordsareadded.Chapter4Syntaxdetermineawordscategory:meaning.Wordcategoriesoftenbearsomerelationshipwithitsmeaning.Themeaningassociat

11、edwithnounsandverbscanbeelaboratedinvariousways.Thepropertyorattributeoftheentitiesdenotedbynounscanbeelaboratedbyadjectives.(prettylady,attributetheproperty“pretty”tothelady.)inflection.Wordsofdifferentcategoriestakedifferentinflections.Suchnounsasboyanddesktakethepluralaffix-s.Verbssuchasworkandhe

12、lptakepasttenseaffix-edandprogressiveaffix-ing.distribution.Thatiswhattypeofelementscanco-occurwithacertainword.Forexample,thegirlandacard小结Awordsdistributionalfactstogetherwithinformationaboutitsmeaningandinflectionalcapabilitieshelpidentifyitssyntacticcategory.phrase包括:head,specifier,complement.Th

13、ewordroundwhichphraseisformedistermedhead.Thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsaresaidtofunctionasspecifiers.Specifiershavebothspecialsemanticandsyntacticroles:Semantically,theyhelpmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead.Syntactically,theytypicallymakeaphraseboundary.Thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsarecompleme

14、nts.Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead.TheyareattachedtotherightoftheheadinEnglish.phrasestructurerule:Thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestruc

15、turerule.XPrule:Inallphrases,thespecifierisattachedatthetopleveltotheleftoftheheadwhilethecomplementisattachedtotheright.ThesesimilaritiescanbesummarizedasanXPrule,inwhichXstandsfortheheadN,V,AorP.(XP-(specifier)X(complement)coordinationrule:Somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesame

16、typewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasandoror.Suchphenomenonisknownascoordination.Suchstructurearecalledcoordinationstructure.(Fourimportantproperties:Thereisnolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesthatcanappearpriortotheconjunction.Acategoryatanylevel(aheadoranentireXP)canbecoordinated.Coordinatedcat

17、egoriesmustbeofthesametype.Thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.)CoordinationRule:X-X*ConX)deepstructureandsurfacestructure:Therearetwolevelsofsyntacticstructure.Thefirst,formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththeheadssubcategorizationproperties,iscal

18、leddeepstructure(orD-structure)./Thesecond,correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations,iscalledsurfacestructure(orS-structure).Chapter5SemanticsThenamingtheory:(GreekscholarPlato)Accordingtothistheory,thelinguisticformsorsymbols,inotherwords,thewordsus

19、edinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor,sowordsarejustnamesorlabelsforthings.Theconceptualistview:Itholdsthatthereisnodirectlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto;rather,intheinterpretationofmeaningtheyarelinkedthroughthemediationofconceptsinthemind.Contextualism:(J.R.Firth)peop

20、leshouldbestudiedintermsofsituation,use,contextelementscloselylinkedwithlanguagebehaviour.Itsbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.twokindsofcontext:thesituationalandthelinguisticcontext.A)thesituationalcontext:Everyutteranceoccursinaparticularsituation,

21、themaincomponentsofwhichinclude,thespeakerandthehearer,theactionstheyareperforming,thevariousobjectsandeventsexistentinthesituation.-Thesealcouldnotbefound.B)thelinguisticcontext:co-text,isconcernedwiththeprobabilityofawordsco-occurrenceorcollocationwithanotherword,whichformspartofthe“meaning”ofthew

22、ord,andalsowiththepartoftextthatprecedesandfollowsaparticularutterance.-blackcoffer&blackhair.Sensereferstotheinherentmeaningofalinguisticform,whichisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform,itabstractandde-contextualized./Referenceiswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld,itisama

23、tterofrelationshipbetweentheformandreality./关系:Linguisticforms,havingthesamesense,mayhavedifferentreferenceindifferentsituations.Linguisticformswiththesamereferencemaydifferinsense.-morningstar=eveningstar.Linguisticformsmayhavesense,buthavenoreferenceintherealworld.-dragon,ghost.Hyponymy:Itrefersto

24、thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.XentailsY:entailment:therelationshipbetweentwosentenceswherethetruthofoneisinferredfromthetruthoftheother.E.g.Cindykilledthedo

25、gentailsthedogisdead.(X:Johnmarriedablondheiress.Y:Johnmarriedablond.)componentialanalysis:anapproachtoanalyzethelexicalmeaningintoasetofmeaningcomponentsorsemanticfeatures.Forexample,boymaybeshownas+human+male-adult.semanticfeatures:Thesmallestunitsofmeaninginaword,whichmaybedescribedasacombination

26、ofsemanticcomponents.Forexample,womanhasthesemanticfeatures+human-male+adult./Advantages:byspecifyingthesemanticfeaturesofcertainword,itwillbepossibletoshowhowthesewordsarerelatedinmeaning.PredicationAnalysis:Themeaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents,thatis,themeaningofase

27、ntenceisnottobeworkedoutbyaddingupallthemeaningsofitsconstituentwords.E.g:Thedogbittheman.&Themanbitthedog.Therearetwoaspectstosentencemeaning:grammaticalmeaningandsemanticmeaning.Grammaticality:grammatical(well-formedness);Semanticallymeaningful:selectionalrestrictions.(selectionalrestriction:Wheth

28、erasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbytherulescalledselectionalrestrictions,i.e.constraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.)(consistofpredicateandargument)Context(JohnFirth):Thenotionofcontextisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage,itgenerallysconsideredasconstitutedbytheknowledgesha

29、redbythespeakerandthehearer.Speechacttheory(JohnAustin)SearlesClassificationofSpeechActs:1representatives:Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.2directives:Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.3commisives:Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.4expressives:Expressingfe

30、elingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.5declaration:Bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething./Conclusion:AerativePrinciple(CP):ProposedbyPaulGrice,theprinciplethattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperateinmakingconversation,otherwise,itwouldbeimpossibletocarryonthetalk.Historicallinguist

31、ics:abranchoflinguistics,ismainlyconcernedwithboththedescriptionandexplanationoflanguagechangesthatoccurredovertime.semanticbroadening:whenthemeaningofawordbecomesbroader,itmayincludeallthemeaningsitusedtomean,andthenmore.Suchasholiday,whichoriginallymeantholyday,butitmeansanydaywhichwedonthavetowor

32、k.semanticnarrowing:semanticchangehasnarrowedthemeaningofsomewords.suchasdeer(anyanimalaparticularkindofanimal)semanticshift:alexicalitemmayundergoashiftinmeaningisthethirdkindofsemanticchange.sociolinguistics:isthesub-fieldoflinguisticthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesof

33、languageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.Inter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety:A)languageisusednotonlytocommunicatemeaning,butalsoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.B)Usersofthesamelanguageinasenseallspeakdifferently,duetotheirsocialbackgrounds.C)Language,especiallythes

34、tructureofitslexicon,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.E.g.thereisonlyonewordinEnglishforsnow,andthereareseveralinEskimo.Languageisrelatedtothestructureifthesocietyinwhichitisused,therefore,judgmentsconcerningthecorrectnessandpurityoflinguisticvarietiesaresocialratherthanling

35、uistic.speechcommunity:thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialstudy.speechvariety:referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.i.e.regionaldialects,sociolects,registersRegister:inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoonesoccupation.Inabroadersense,thetyp

36、eoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.A)Fieldofdiscourse-topic:thepurposeandsubjectmatterofthecommunicativebehavior.-why/what-vocabulary,phonological,grammaticalfeaturesTenorofdiscourse-role:participantsandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.-formality/technicalit

37、yofthelanguageweuse.C)Modeofdiscourse-meansofcommunication.-how(speakingorwriting).degreeofformality:intimate;casual;consultative;formal;frozenculture:A）Inabroadsense:Culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacteri

38、zesthelifeofthehumancommunity.B)Inanarrowsense:Culturemayrefertoalocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodcultureetc.Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture:languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeingpermeateshisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld.Itbo

39、thexpressesandembodiesculturalreality.reflectsandaffectsacultureswayofthinkingandhelpsperpetuateandchangethecultureanditsinfluence,whichalsofacilitatesthedevelopmentofthislanguageatthesametime.languageisapartofculture.Sapir-WhorfHypothesis:Abeliefthatthewaypeopleviewtheworldisdeterminedwhollyorpartl

40、ybytheirstructureoftheirnativelanguage.-interdependenceoflanguageandthought.(therearetwointerpretations:astrongversionandaweakone.Thestrongversionbelievesthatlanguagepatternsdeterminepeoplesthinkingandbehavior.Theweakoneholdsthattheformerinfluencesthelater.)Greetingsandtermsofaddress:A)Peopleindiffe

41、rentcountrieschoosethepropergreetingstogreetdifferentpeopletheymeetondifferentoccasions.B)Thetermsofaddresscanbedifferentindifferentcountries.C)Chinesepeoplewillalsoextendkinshiptermsandindicatepeoplesinfluentialatusst.culturaloverlap:Thesituationbetweentwosocietiesduetosomesimilaritiesinthenaturale

42、nvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeingculturaldiffusion:Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thusbringingaboutculturaldiffusion.linguisticsimperialism:itisakindofkindoflinguicismwhichcanbedefinedasthepromulgationofglobalideologiesthroughtheworld-wideexpansiono

43、fonelanguage.languageacquisition:Itreferstothechildsacquisitionofhismothertongue,i.e.howthechildcomestounderstandandspeakthelanguageofhiscommunity.(thebehaviourist,theinnatistLAD=LanguageAcquisitionDevice,theinteractionistviewmotherese,childdirectedspeech,caretakertalkunder-extension:Useawordwithles

44、sthanitsusualrangeofdenotation.E.g,babyusesanimaltorefertocat,butdeniesthebirdbelongstoananimal.over-extension:Extensionofthemeaningofawordbeyonditsusualdomainofapplicationbyyoungchildren.E.g,babyusesappleforallfruit.AtypicalDevelopment:hearingimpairment,mentalretardation,autism,stuttering,aphasia,d

45、yslexia,dysgraphia.secondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstothesystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Connectionbetweenfirstlanguageacquisitionandsecondlanguageacquisition:Theoretically-Thenewfindingsandadvancesinfistlanguageacquisitionespeciallyinlearningtheoriesandlearningprocessareilluminatinginunderstandingsecondlanguageacquisition.Practically-Thetechniquesusedtocollectandanalyzedatainfirstlanguageacquisitionalsoprovideinsightsandperspectivesi