外国新闻史课程-第14讲 战后苏东

第14讲战后苏东地区新闻传播业的转型《外国新闻传播史》主要内容苏联新闻业回顾冷战宣传西方媒介的渗透俄罗斯－东欧新闻业现状一、苏联新闻业回顾十月革命与报刊OverviewHistoryIndustrialrevolutionMarxRussiaLenin’smediamodel&principlesStalin’smediamodel:新集权主义Post-StalinistmediaSovietfilmConclusionsMarxonMediaKarlMarxJournalism,onlypaidjobMarxeverheld.“Afreepressiseverywheretheopeneyeofthenationalspirit,theembodiedconfidenceofthepeopleinitself,theverbalbondthattiestheindividualtothestate&theworld…Itisthespiritualmirrorinwhichthepeopleobservethemselves,andself-observationisthefirstconditionofwisdom…Bearinmindthattheadvantagesoffreedomofthepresscannotbeenjoyedwithouttolerationofitsinconveniences.”精神交往理论Marx’shistoricalepochsTheprimitive“Toallaccordingtoneed;Egalitarianrelations,sharedlabour&resourcesThepatriarchalHierarchicalsocietymaintainedbyslavelabourThefeudalAristocracymaintainedbyserflabourTheAsiaticModeofProduction(AMP)ThecapitalistBourgeoisiemaintainedbyproletariatTheSocialistfromallaccordingtocapacityLenin列宁主义1917,RussiawithdrewfromWorldWarI,tornbyworld’sfirstsocialistrevolution.Asrevolutionproceeded,itbecameclearthatnewmassmediawouldplayacentralroleinthenewUnionofSovietSocialistRepublics.Lenin’sMedia列宁在办报过程中对新闻的作用有深刻认识。ArguedWesternmediahadalwaysservedinterestsofdominantclasses[seeChomsky]&thatsocialistmediashoulddeny/limitaccesstotheseclasses:"thepressisoneofthestrongestweaponsinthehandsofthebourgeoisie".formspartof“ideologicalsuperstructure”1918,Bolsheviksdeclared“decreesandordinancesoftheorgansoftheSovietpower”mustbeincludedinallnewspapers.[3]Lenin’sMediaWhenstateisrevolutionary,dominantmediasystemmustbestateowned&pro-activelypursuestategoals.OriginalmastheadofPravda(Truth)1917,declareditself"theCentralOrganoftheRussianSocialDemocraticLabourParty".NeverthelessduringLenin’slifetime,notmonolithicorentirelyauthoritariansystem;privatenewspapers&journalsallowed,somecriticismofnationaleconomy&CommunistPartystructure.

Lenin’smedia卫国战争中的苏联报刊停办、合并一批民用报刊.减少报纸篇幅和发行份数。大力发展军事报刊Stalinist‘realism’《真理报》的战时宣传宣传保卫祖国思想，鼓舞人们斗志报道卫国战争的重要战事：莫斯科、列宁格勒、斯大林格勒保卫战的报道。号召后方人们支援前线。对劳动竞赛进行大量报道。揭露了德国法西斯的暴行Socialist‘realism’现实主义1930sallartistsmandatorymembershipinunions1934officiallysanctioneddoctrineofsocialistrealism,appliedtoallartsallartstoexpresssocialisticspiritthroughtraditionalforms.SylisticinnovationorabstractexpressionismbannedSocialistRealismAnaestheticformulaportrayingmasssocietyinapositivelightToinspireprogressalongMarxist-LeninistlinesAllmedia&allartstoadheretotheformula.SocialistRealismSocialistRealism-DailyLife

Socialist‘realism’斯大林时期的新闻管制Gostelradio,institutionofabsolutecontrolofallelectronicmedia，新闻信息来源单一。AllseniormediapostsappointmentsofCPCC言论高度集中。Gostelsubdividedinto3sections:domesticradio,domesticTV&foreignbroadcastingplusspecialdepartmentofpropaganda.

实行新闻检查建立编委会制度。Conceptofindependentjournalismnon-existentinsteadamajorsiteofemploymentofSovietapparatchikswhosesuitabilitydeterminedbypartyloyalties;littlerelationtojournalisticorothermediaskills.苏联广播业的发展1918年开始广播事业1922年成立莫斯科中央广播电台，二战时，列维坦是该台最著名的播音员，他的播音具有很强的鼓动力。莫斯科电台和“和平与进步电台”的国际广播。实力曾雄踞世界第一，加强意识形态的宣传。Politicalspeechesbroadcastorprintedinfull.Sourcesofnews:Listeningclandestinelytoforeignradioprogramsonunlicensedsetswasacrimeagainstthestate.赫鲁晓夫时期（1953－1968）

打破意识形态僵局，批判斯大林主义，有限度地开放新闻。深化经济改革，扩大企业自主权。个人集权主义。Kruschev’smediaKruschev&ChePremiershipofNikitaKruschev1958-64Someeasingofmediacontrols;Mediaalsoadaptedsophisticatedscenariosfromabroad,BBCformats&interviewingstyles.波列日涅夫时期新经济政策的实行，苏美全面争霸，1968年出兵捷克，控制东欧国家，中苏关系恶化。新闻垄断，国际形象恶化Brezhnev’smediaLeonidBrezhnev1964-82

Stalinistprinciplesofmediacontrolreinvigorated;Creativity&professionalstandardsdeclined&mediawasgenerallymoribund.Photocopiers&duplicatingequipmentlicensed;theirusebyindividuals&non-partyorganisationsbanned.

SovietjokeofBrezhnevera“everyeditorinthecountrycanpublishanythinghelikes,butonlyonceinhisownlifetime”.Chernenko（契尔年科）&

Andropov（安德波罗夫）（1982－1985）初步改革Bothusedmediatoinstildiscipline,launchcampaignsagainstcorruptionattacktheWest.戈尔巴乔夫时期的新闻改革公开暴露社会生活中的阴暗面大量触及时政、历史问题。1990年的《新闻法》：取消了新闻审查制度，规定办报的自由和报人的自主，苏联报刊江河日下。SovietTV苏联的电视业“IntheUSSR&othersocialistcountries,televisiondemonstratesindividualfeaturesofthesocialistwayoflife,mouldspublicopinion,andhelpsprovidetheideological,moralandaestheticeducationofthemasses”(FormerChairmanofGostel,SergeiLapin).SovietTVUSSRbeganexperimentalTV1934TVbeganregularbroadcasting1939concentratedonnewsitems,films&playsforTV.TransmissionstoppedforGreatPatrioticWar;resumedafterwards.AllSovietTVprogramspre-recordedtoavoidspontaneous,erroneousorcriticalremarks.1988governmentclaimed95.6%ofpopulationhadaccesstoTV;24%colourTV.SovietfilmFilmalwaysreceivedbetterbudgets&morefreedomduetoitsexternalpropagandapotentialNeverthelesscinemapartofthestateapparatus&expectedtoservesameultimatePartygoalsasothermedia.SovietfilmLeninfilmisa"pictorialpubliclecture“Stalin电影宣传"greatinvaluableforce...aidingworkingclass&itsPartytoeducatethetoilersinthespiritofSocialism,toorganizethemasses...&toraisecultural&politicalbattle-fitness".“IfIcouldcontrolthemovies,Icouldcontroltheworld”SovietfilmSovietcinemaconcentratedonepicdramas&histories,sinsofTsarist&capitalistsystems;Domesticdramasstressedsocialresponsibility&politicalduty.FewcomediesormusicalsSovietcinemaofmajorsignificanceinworldcinemaforintellectual&technicalskillsplusaestheticsofSRGorbachev’smediaGorbachev'openedup'mediaunderpolicyofglasnostEncouragedsomeinvestigationofsocialillsAllowedlimitedpoliticalcriticism.Eventually,underhousearrest,hesayshewaskeptinformedofeventsinUSSR,bywatchingillegalreceptionofBBCWorldBroadcasts.1990sRadioMajorradioprogramsthrough4state-radiochannels1stProgram:news,politicalcommentary,classicalmusic&folk2ndProgram:24hourbroadcastsofnewsandmusic3rd&4thPrograms:classicalmusic&radioplays.ExternalradiobroadcastingBegun1925,soondevelopedintoworld'slargestexternalservice.Bylate‘80s,broadcast2257hrsperweekin80languagesparticularfocusonSouthAmerican&Africanstates.Externalprogramsofferednews&information;socialistpropagandising;&creationofculturallinks

especiallyRussianclassicalmusic,balletInmanySoviet-clientstates,massmediasystemslargelyestablishedwithSovietfunding&expertise.MediadissentNodissent,negativereportingorcriticalanalysisofgovernmentpoliciesinSovietmedia.Nopoliticalopposition.Mid-1960s,dissidentsdevisedunofficialmeanstodistributeverylimitedpubliccommunicationsbyratherprimitivemediasystemsphotocopiers,roneos.Publicationsgenerallytermedbydissidentsthemselves,samizdat(self-publishing)or"literatureoutsidecensorship"“Books,irregularlyappearingperiodicals,almostillegiblenews-sheets,retypedlectures,‘public’gatheringsof80peoplesquashedinsideasingleapartment,‘public’lecturesattendedby120people:thesearepotentreconstructionsofanoppositionalpublicrealm”.

Mohammadi,1997:223.USmediatedviewsUSstudy1942-5adjectivesdescribingRussianpeople.“hardworking,brave,ordinary,radicalandprogressive”1961,ColdWar,samesurveyfoundwordschanged“hardworking,warlike,treacherous,intelligent&progressive.

ChangeinperceptionduetoUSmediapropaganda.Holt,1997.SignificanceofSovietMediaInterestinginitselfThemodelforallotherCommunistmedia&manynon-communistbutauthoritarianmediasystems;Westernmediasystemsseenfromnewperspectiveincomparison;andIfglobalmediaaretoencouragepro-social(asopposedtopro-economic)behaviours,aspectsofCommunistmediamayholdrelevance.ConclusionsPrinciplesofCommunistmediaseemdiametricallyopposedtothoseofWesternorLiberalmedia.Westvaluesfreedomofexpression&mediadiversity,theCommunistsystemhasvalueddisciplinedformsofexpression&mediaunityintheserviceofegalitarianismTooversimplify,Westernmodelorganisedaccordingtosocio-economicprioritieswhileCommunistoneorganisedaccordingtosocio-politicalpriorities.Bothsystemshavefailedtorealisetheirprinciplesyetbothhavesomethingtocontributetoanewpublicperceptionofthewaymediacanoperatetoservethebestinterestsofcitizens,theirpoliticalstructuresandsociallyproductivecorporateinterests.ConclusionsTheworkerbecomesallthepoorerthemorewealthheproduces,themorehisproductionincreasesinpowerandrange.Theworkerbecomesanevercheapercommoditythemorecommoditieshecreates.Withtheincreasingvalueoftheworldofthingsproceedsindirectproportiontothedevaluationoftheworldofmen.Labourproducesnotonlycommodities;itproducesitselfandtheworkerasacommodity--anddoessointheproportioninwhichitproducescommoditiesgenerally.Marx,EconomicandPhilosophicManuscripts(1844)二、冷战宣传与西方渗透TheSovietUnionin1985March1985MikhailGorbachevbecomesGeneralSecretaryoftheCPSUProblems:(1)gerontocracy(2)economy(3)technologyandscienceTheSovietUnionin1985Externalproblems:(1)Afghanistan–“..ableedingwound”(2)CMEA(3)ForeigncommunistpartiesYoungerandfitterReformsApril1985–perestroikaintroducedBelievethatneedotherreformstosustainperestroika(1)glasnost(2)“newthinking”inforeignpolicy“NewThinking”inForeignPolicyBegintoquestiontraditionalthinkinginmanyareas(1)NeededgoodrelationswiththeUS(2)Sawworldinmultipolartermsandnotbipolar(3)Reducetensionin“hotspots”(4)Reduceideology

Allaidedbychangesinpersonnel–EdwardShevardnadzereplacesAndreiGromykoasForeignMinister“NewThinking”inForeignPolicyJanuary1986VladivostockFebruary198627thCongressofCPSU30May1987WarsawPactannouncement7December1988GorbachevatUnitedNationsUS–SovietRelationsMistruststillatthestartandUSbelievingjustchangeinstyle¬substanceAnumberofsummitstakeplaceNovember1985–GenevaOctober1986–Reykjavik–ReagantakingtoughstanceUS–SovietRelationsDecember1987GorbachevinUS–IntermediateNuclearForcesTreatyMay/June1988ReaganinMoscowNovember1988GeorgeBushwinsPresidentialelection-unsureofSovietmotivesUS–SovietRelations12May1989BushspeechatTexasA&MUniversity–suggests“openskies”andwelcomesSovietUnionbackintoworldfoldDecember1989meetinginMaltaByend1989massivereductionofsuperpowertensionscomparedto1985EasternEurope

OncereformstartsintheSovietUnioncountriesinEasternEuropewantthesameEverythingstartstounravelinPoland&Hungary

Poland&HungaryPolandNovember1987referendumonissuesElectionsJune1989–SolidaritydoingwellSeptember1989Tadeusz

MazowieckibecomesPrimeMinisterPoland&HungaryHungaryOctober1988KadarreplacedwithKarloyGroszJan1989promisedfreeelectionsApril1989SoviettroopswithdrawnJune1989ImreNagyreburiedGermanDemocraticRepublicEricHoneckersayingGorbachevreformsirrelevantMay1989Hun/GDRborderopened–routetoWestGermanymidOctoberHoneckerresigns9Novemberfreedomoftravel–endofBerlinWall

Czechoslovakia&RomaniaCzechoslovakia24November1989wholepolitburoforcedtoresignamidmassdemonstrationsendyearAlexanderDubcekspeakerinparliament&VaclavHavelPresidentRomania

ViolentoverthrowofCeausescuasattemptstoholdontopowerWhydidGorbachevallowthistohappen?Whydidhenotinvokethe“BrezhnevDoctrine”（勃列日涅夫主义，进攻性战略）?“SinatraDoctrine”(1)“CommonEuropeanHome”(2)IfusedforcerelationswithUSwouldhavedeteriorated&returnofColdWar“SinatraDoctrine”–doittheirwayThirdWorldAfghanistan1987SoviettroopswithdrawingApril1989GenevaAccords1989allSoviettroopsoutAngola1987US-Angolantalks&CubajoinedJan198822Dec1988agreementatUN–allsideswinEndoftheColdWar4Dec1989WarsawPactmeeting–saying1968invasionwrong5DecemberPravdasayingColdWarover1990GorbachevwinsNobelPeaceprize–problemsathomeTheRoleoftheUSSDIbankruptingtheSovietUnionBackingforMujaheddin-$250m1985/$630m1987–“stingers”from19866monthsbefore“velvetrevolution”noonepredictingit–UScannottakeplauditsToughactionforcingSovietreforms–MoscowwantedthemanywayConclusionsSovietUnionfacingmassiveproblems1985Gorbachevrealisescannotcontinueasbefore&introducesreformsOncereformsstarteddrivethemselvesWantedtoreformsystemnotenditConclusionsAsideologytakenoutSovietforeignpolicysuperpowerrelationsimprove“SinatraDoctrine”inEasternEuropeThirdWorldreductionintensionDecember1989ColdWaroverIfaboxingmatchUSleftaslastmanstanding三、苏东巨变后的俄罗斯新闻业地方化商业化电子传媒主流化意识形态西方化INMODERNRUSSIA:©Prof.,Dr.MikhailFedotov,

ExecutiveSecretaryoftheRussianUnionofJournalists(RUJ),2005ANDHATEBETWEENLOVEMEDIACrossroadofFreedom&AuthoritarianSt.democracyandmarketeconomytotalitarianorauthoritarianchoiceRussianMEDIASovietpropagandaIndicatorsoftransitionsMediaLaws1990-1991foreseeable

futurenotlongagoIndicatorNo1–theconditionofthestateMediaPreservationofthestate-ownedandstate-controlledMedia.EstablishmentofstatecontroloverpreviouslyprivateorformallyprivateMedia.DisappearanceofstateownedMedia.DenationalizationandprivatizationofenterprisesformingthematerialandtechnologicalbasisfortheproductionofMediaoutput.

TheexitofthestatefromtheMediamarket.Since2001Since19921995–thefirstfutileendeavortochangeitSince2003–onlylocalprintingmediaTVCHANNELONE,forexampleFEDERALPOWERMinistryofStateOwnershipITAR-TASSTelevisionTechnicalCenter“ORT-KB”“RASTRCOM-2002”“EBERLINK-2002”TVCHANNELONE38,9%9,1%3,0%11,0%14,0%24,0%IndicatorNo2–thestate’seconomicsupportfortheMediaPreservationofthecurrentsystemoffinanciallysupportingmainlystate-ownedandstate-controlledMedia.ThecuttingortheeliminationofthetaxandcustomsbenefitsfortheMedia.EstablishmentofajustandtransparentsystemofeconomicsupportoftheMediabythestatebasedonstabletaxallowances.Statedonationsforlocalnewspapers.

Since1992Since1995Since2002Since1995PercentageoftheFederalBudgetAllocationtostateTVandRadiointheR.F.ParliamentaryelectionParliamentaryelectionPresidentialelectionPresidentialelectionRTRfundinginFY1999Totalrevenues–2,697,1millionsrubles.(approx.-104,1millionsUSD)Source:TheBulletinoftheAccountChamberofRF.2001.No3RTRexpensesinFY1999TotalfinancialresultofRTRinFY1999–deadloss922,2millionrubles.(approx.35,7millionUSD)Source:TheBulletinoftheAccountChamberofRF.2001.No3RTRfundingandexpensesinFY2000-2003Source:theletterbyMinistryofCultureandMassCommunication,October,20045322111761436918495ExpensesIndicatorNo3–thesizeoftheMediaAdvertisingMarketMonopolizationoftheadvertisingmediamarket.Establishingcontrolunderadvertisingmediamarketthroughthe“Media-Committee”undertheleadershipofGovernmentalofficials.Thestate’sstimulationofthegrowthoftheadvertisingmediamarkettoalevelwhichisminimallysufficienttoguaranteetheprofitabilityofthemediabusiness.Theeliminationoflimitstoadvertisingcostsfortaxaims.20012002Since1998VolumesofadvertisingonRTRandChannelOne(ORT)

inthousandsofsecondsAdvertisingrevenuesofRTRandChannelOne

(inmillionsUSD)Sources:Fortaxreportsee-TheBulletinoftheAccountChamberofRF.2001.No3:Fordesignvaluesee–RussianAdvertising-99.AdvertisingCouncilofRussia.2000.IndicatorNo4–theclimateforforeigninvestmentintotheMediamarketPuttingabanonforeigninvestmentintheMediamarket.EstablishinglimitsontheforeigninvestmentintheMediamarket.DestructionofthepossiblesaleofsomeMediaoutletstoforeigninvestors.EliminationofalloftheunreasonablelimitsinthewayofforeigninvestmentintheMediamarket.Establishmentofthelegal,economicandpoliticalcircumstancesfortheintegrationofdomesticmediaintotransnationalMediacorporations.

2001Since2001LIMITATIONSONFOREIGNINVESTMENT

byRussianMediaLaw19911991–Foreigncitizensandpersonswithoutcitizenshiphaven’ttherighttofoundMediaoutlets.(article7)2001-Foreigncitizens,legalpersons,personswithdoublecitizenship,aswellasRussianjointventureshaven’ttherights:-tofoundTVchannelsonnationallevel;-toownTVcompaniesonnationallevel;-tobuy50ormorepercentofsharesofTVcompaniesonthenationallevel.(article191)PositiveandnegativecoverageofthePartiesontheNationalTVChannelsduringParliamentaryelection2003(primetimenews)TVCHANNEL“RUSSIA”(RTR)PositiveandnegativecoverageofthePartiesontheNationalTVChannelsduringParliamentaryelection2003(primetimenews)PositiveandnegativecoverageofthePartiesontheNationalTVChannelsduringParliamentaryelection2003(primetimenews)PositiveandnegativecoverageofthePartiesontheNationalTVChannelsduringParliamentaryelection2003(primetimenews)Source:OSCE/ODIHRElectionObservationMission.FinalReport.Warsaw,27January2004.CoverageofPresidentialCandidates

onTVChannel“Russia”(RTR)in2000and2004CoverageofthePresidentialCandidates

onNTVChannelin2000and2004News&AnalyticalprogramsofTVChannel“Russia”inMarch2004NEWS&ANALYTICALPROGRAMS

OFNTVCHANNELINMARCH2004LegalreasonsforclosingtheMedia

(correctionsoftheMediaLaw1991)1991-UsingtheMediatoviolatetheCriminalCode.1995-UsingtheMediaforthe“propagandaofpornography,violenceandcruelty”.2000–UsingtheMediato“disseminateinformationaboutthemeansforcreation,productionanduse,aswellasplacesofacquiring,drugs”.2000–UsingtheMediato“disseminatetheinformation,whichdisseminationisforbiddenbyfederallaws”.2002–UsingtheMedia“forextremistactivity”.2003–Duplicateabuseoftheelectorallawsintheframeworkofthesameelectoralcampaign.Simplificationoftheproceduresforthestate’sclosingofaMediaoutlet-1991-2004Mediaoutletmaybeclosedonlybycourt:

1991–onthecivilsuitbytheMinistryofthePressaftertwoormoreofficialwarningsdue12months.2002–EXTRA-onthepetitionbytheappropriatefederalexecutivebodyoranyprosecutorafteroneofficialwarningaboutextremistactivityorwithoutpreliminarywarning,ifthisactivityhasdonedamagetotherightsofcitizens,totheenvironment,topublicorderorsecurity,tolegalinterestsofnaturalorlegalpersons,aswellashasmadeathreatofthesamedamage.2003–EXTRA–ThecourtmaytoholduptheMediaoutletuntiltheendoftheelectoralcampaignonthepetitionbytheappropriatefederalexecutivebodyontheinitiativeoftheCentraloranyregionalelectoralcommissions.

(Foranalysisofthedraftssee:Yuriy

Baturin,MikhailFedotov,VladimirEntin“MediaLaw–onthecrossroadofagesandopinions”,publishedbyRussianUnionofJournalistswithsupportbyUNESCO.Moscow,2004)PerspectivesofnewRussianMediaLawThedraftofthenewMediaLaw,createdundertheauspicesoftheRussianUnionofJournalists,wassubmittedbytheSPSandYablokopartiestotheStateDumainJune2002.Anotherdraft,createdundertheauspicesof“TheIndustrialCommitteeofMassMedia”(theNGOincludesleadersofmajorstateownedandstate-controlledMediacorporations)andMinistryofthePress,hasbeenlocatedattheAdministrationofthePresidentofRF

sinceJune2003.TWODRAFTS–TWOFORTUNESINDUSTRIALCOMMITTEE’SDRAFTRUSSIANUNIONOFJOURNALISTS’DRAFTAdditionallegalreasonsforclosureandtemporaryclosureoftheMediaoutletTerminationofeditorialindependencePreservationofthestate-ownedMedia,andothermistakesandshortcomingsofthecurrentMediaLawExtensionofthetermoflicensesforTVandRadiobroadcastingto10yearsImplementationofinternationalstandardsofMediaregulationsStrengtheningoftheguaranteesoftheeditorialindependence,transparenceandpluralismCreationthewaysfortransformingthestateownedMediatoPublicMediaCreationoflegalbasisforpublicbroadcastingIndicatorNo7–PublicBroadcastingPreservationofthestate-ownedbroadcastingcompanies.TheblockingofthedraftoftheFederalPublicBroadcastingLaw.PromotionofthedraftoftheFederalPublicBroadcastingLaw.TherealtransformationofstatebroadcastingcompaniesintoorganizationsofPublicBroadcasting.

Since20021993–thefirstfutileendeavortochangeitFederalPower’sAttemptstoCreateSeparateElementsofPublicBroadcastingintheRFPresidentialdecreeNo377ofMarch20,1993orderingthecreationofPatronageCouncilsfortheStateTVandRadioCompaniesOnMarch28,1993theIXCongressofPeople’sDeputiesorderedthecreationofFederalSupervisionCouncilforpreservationoffreedomofspeechonstatebroadcastingPresidentialDecreeNo452ofOctober31,1997onthecreationofaPatronageCouncilfortheTVchannel“Culture”ActoftheStateDuma

No639ofOctober4,1996onthetransformationofjoint-stockcompany“ORT”intoastatetelevisioncompanyThe1998DraftLaw“OntheStateconductingofRTR”wasadoptedonthefirsthearingThe1998St