the second language acqusition第二语言习得复习资料

DefinitionofSecondlanguageacquisition:Itreferstoasystematicstudyofhowonepersonacquiresasecondlanguagesubsequenttohisnativelanguage.Acquisition习得:无意识地学会Learning学习：通过系统学习语法规律等学会Interlanguage中介语Selinker(1972)coinedtheterm“interlanguage”torefertothesystematicknowledgeofanL2whichisindependentofboththeselearners'L1andthetargetlanguage.Thetermhascometobeusedwithdifferentbutrelatedmeanings:(1)torefertotheseriesofinterlockingsystemswhichcharacterizeacquisition.(2)torefertothesystemthatisobservedatasinglestageofdevelopment.(“interlanguage”),and(3)torefertoparticularL1/L2combination(forexample,L1French/L2Englishv.L1Japanese/L2English).Othertermsthatrefertothesamebasicideaare“approximativesystem”and“transitionalcompetence”.定义：中介语：中介语理论假设第二语言学习者有一个自行创造的独特的语言系统，介乎学习者的母语和目的语之间，并随学习的进展逐渐向目的语靠拢。因为游离于母语和目的语之间，中介语自然包含许多错误。E.g.Ilostmyroad.Ilostmyway.特征：Fossilization(石化现象)：Itreferstothephenomenonthatincorrectlinguisticfeaturesbecomeapermanentpartofthewayapersonspeaksorwritesalanguage.石化现象是中介语的重要特征E.g.Allstudentsarenothere不是所有的学生都在这里Noneofthestudentishere.所有的学生都不在这里FossilizationSelinker(1972)notedthatmostL2learnersfailtoreachtarget-languagecompetence.Thatis,theystoplearningwhiletheirinternalizedrulesystemcontainsrulesdifferentfromthoseoftargetsystem.Thisisreferredtoas“fossilization”.Itreflectstheoperationofvariousinternalprocesses.一、、ConceptsofSecondlanguageacquisition：1．Objectives：①Competencevsperformance②L1vs.L2vs.FL③Acquisitionvs.learning④Inputvs.output⑤Interlanguage中介语⑥Variability⑦Fossilization(石化现象)⑧Languagetransfer迁移2.Competencevs.PerformanceChomsky(1957)madehisfamousdistinguishbetweenCompetenceandPerformanceCompetence：anidealspeaker'sknowledgeofhislanguagesmanifestedinhisabilitytouse

thelanguage.Sound,form,meaning:Performance:thespecificutterances,includinggrammaticalmistakesandnon-linguisticfeaturessuchashesitations,etc.CompetenceandperformanceinlanguagelearningWhatisacquiredorlearnedofthetwo?Inlanguagelearning,whatdoesthedistinctiontellus?(result,process,evaluation)Firstlanguagevs.Secondlanguagevs.FL1．WhatisFirstlanguage(L1)?L1,withothernames:nativelanguage(NL),mothertongue,primarylanguage.Firstlanguageorsecondlanguageindicatestheorderorsequenceoflanguagelearning.Whatissecondlanguage(L2)?ThelanguageonelearnsafterhisnativelanguageorL1.“Second”canmeananylanguageonelearnthatissubsequenttohisL1.TwosensesofL2A:thelanguageonelearnsafterhisnativelanguage,onelearnsthelanguageinthetargetlanguage(TL)languageenvironment.(narrowsense)Example:AChineselearnsEnglishinUSorUK.AnAmericanlearnsChineseinChina.B:Anylanguagethatonelearnsotherthanhisnativetongue.(broadsense)Example:WearelearningEnglishinChina.ForeignLanguage(FL)Thelanguagethatonelearnsotherthanhisfirstlanguage,butnotinthetargetlanguageenvironment.LearningEnglishnotintheEnglish-spokencountries.DifferencesbetweenFLandL2FLL2AComparisonbetweenL1andL2acquisitionSpeedStagesErrorcorrectionDepthofknowledgeSuccessLevelofattainmentAcquisitionvs.LearningWhatisacquisition?ThedistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningwasmadebyS.Krashen,thefamousAmericanappliedlinguistinhis“MonitorTheory”.HedefinedtwotypesofmodesoflearninginadultL2learning.Acquisitionthesubconsciouslearningprocessinthenaturallanguageenvironmentthatisnotinfluencedbyexplicitinstructioninasecondlanguage^srulesandsystemorabouterrors.Learning:isaconsciousprocessoflanguagedevelopmentthatistheresultofintendedandexplicitinstructioninasecondlanguage'srolesandsystemorabouterrorsinaartificialenvironmentsuchasaformallanguageclassroom.AcomparisonbetweenLearningandacquisitionAcquisitionLearningImplicit,subconsciousExplicit,consciousInformalsituationsFormalsituationsUsesgrammatical“feelUsesgrammaticalrulesDependsonattitudeDependsonaptitudeStableorderofacquisitionSimpletocomplexorderoflearning6.InputandOutputWhatisinputandoutput?Generally,inputreferstothechannels(process)thatlearnersacquireinformationoflanguageinlearningoracquisition:listeningandreading;Outputreferstothechannelsandprocessresults)thatlearnersproducelanguage,includingspeakingandwriting.KindsofInputAuthenticinput:Nativespeakerinput,nomodificationModifiedinputNativespeakerinput,nomodificationInterlanguageinputTeachertalk,peerstalkLinguisticadjustmentstoNon-NativeSpeakers(NNS)“foreignertalk”(Ferguson,1975)well-formedbutmodified.Featureslower,morecarefulpronunciation,stressonkeywords(VOAspecialEnglish)shortergrammarstructuresgrammaticalrelationsmadeexplicitlesssyntacticorpropositionalcomplexityrestrictedvocabularysizefewerproformsComprehensibleinputStephenKrashen(1981)heldthatlearnersacquireanL2byhearingandunderstandingmessagesthatareslightlyabovetheircurrentlanguageL2level.Thistypeofinputiscalledcomprehensibleinput(namely,“i+1”)Essentially,comprehensibleinputisthatbitoflanguagethatisheard/readandthatisslightlyaheadofalearner'scurrentstateofgrammaticalknowledge.Languagecontainingstructuresalearneralreadyknowsessentiallyservesnopurposeinacquisition.Similarly,languagecontainingstructuresaheadofalearner'scurrentknowledgeisnotuseful.Alearnerdoesnothavetheabilityto“do”anythingwiththosestructures.Krashendefinedalearner'scurrentstateofknowledgeasiandthenextstageasi+1.Thustheinputalearnerisexposedtomustbeatthei+1levelinorderforittobeofuseintermsofacquisition.“Wemovefromi,ourcurrentleveltoi+1,thenextlevelalongthenaturalorder,byunderstandinginputcontainingi+1”(1985,p.2).Theteacher'smainrole,then,istoensurethatstudentsreceivecomprehensibleinput.ComprehensibleoutputManyresearchersbelievethatInputaloneisnotsufficientforacquisition,becausewhenonehearslanguageonecanofteninterpretthemeaningwithouttheuseofsyntax.Input —output(whatisinbetween?)IntakeisverynecessaryforSecondlanguagelearnersalsoneedcomprehensibleoutput:chancestopracticetheirlanguage.Thispracticeiscalledcomprehensibleoutput.Cooperativelearningisoneeffectivewaytodoso.Comprehensibleoutputreferstotheneedforalearnertobe“pushedtowardthedeliveryofamessagethatisnotonlyconveyed,butthatisconveyedprecisely,coherently,andappropriately”(Swain,1985,p.249).Output,thus,wouldseemtohaveapotentiallysignificantroleinthedevelopmentofsyntaxandmorphology”(Swain,1995,p.128).可理解输入的三个功能：注意/触发功能(noticing)。忽视问题、识别问题并对相关输入予以注意、注意特定的输入加工，寻找解决办法假设验证功能(hypothesis-testing)。L2学习是一个不断对目标做出假设并不断验证的过程。元语言功能(metalanguage)。琢磨、分析语言所得出的关于语言的形式、结构和其它方面的知识教元语言。当学习者反思其目标语用法时，输出就起元语言的功能。7.Interlanguage(IL)Definition:inter+languageLarrySelinker(1972)coinedtheterminterlanguageisanemerginglinguisticssystemthathasbeendevelopedbyalearnerofasecondlanguagewhohasnotbecomefullyproficientyet,butisonlyapproximatingthetargetlanguage.AnILisidiosyncraticalybasedonthelearners'experienceswiththesecondlanguage.TheterminterlanguagewasfirstusedbySelinker(1972).Varioustermshavebeenusedforthesamething:Nemser(1971):approximativesystemsCorder(1971):idiosyncraticdialects,transitionalcompetence.8.TransferDefinition:Transferistheinfluenceresultingfromthesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthetargetlanguageandanyotherlanguagethathasbeenpreviously(andperhapsimperfectly)acquired(Odlin1989:27)“一个人关于一种语言的知识对他另一种语言的知识或使用产生的影响”Theinfluenceofaperson'sknowledgeofonelanguageonthatperson'sknowledgeoruseofanotherlanguage.(Jarvis&Pavlenko，2008：1)。语言迁移还可以指L2向L1的迁移(反向迁移)，也称语言磨蚀(attrition)。Classification:Transfercanbepositiveandnegative，originatefromL1orL2Positivetransfer: resultNegativetransfer:JInterlingualtransfer|Intralingualtransfersource二．ReviewingSLAbasesObjectivesofthisunitDefinitionoflanguageDifferentviewsaboutlanguageNatureoflanguagelearningUnderstandingofL1acquisitionWhatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.(Wardhaugh,1977)DifferentviewsaboutlanguageThosedifferentviewsaboutlanguagehelptogivedifferentdefinitionoflanguage.Itmightbesafetosaythatdifferentviewsoflinguistscanbethereflectionofthenatureoflanguageitself.TheprimitiveviewslanguageisanorganismlanguageiswritinglanguageisconventionalThestructuralismviewLanguageisspeechLanguageisastructuralsystemLanguageisanarbitrarysystemThefunctionalistviewTheinstrumentalfunctionTheinteractionalfunctionTheinterpersonalfunctionTheother(page14)ThenatureofLearningLearningexplainedbyLongmanDictionary:“acquiringorgettingofknowledgeofasubjectorskill,bystudy,experience,orinstruction”.Kimble&Garmezy(1963)“Learningisarelativelypermanentchangeinabehavioraltendencyandistheresultofreinforcedpractice”Brown(1994)defineslearningmoreprecisely:acquisitionorgettingretentionofknowledge,information,orskillstoragesystems,memory,andcognitionactive,consciousfocusonandactinguponeventsoutsideorinsidetheorganismrelativelypermanent,butsubjecttoforgettinginvolvessomeformofpracticelearningisachangeofbehaviorReber(1967)classifiedtwotypesoflearning:Explicitlearning ExplicitknowledgeImplicitlearning Tacit(implicit)knowledgeAndthus,twokindsofknowledge:ExplicitknowledgeandtacitknowledgeTheoriesinL1AcquisitionBehavioristlearningtheory(行为主义)(popularinthe1950sand60s)TheNativistapproach(内在论)TheCognitiveapproach(认知论)TheFunctionalapproach(功能观)4.1Behavioristlearningtheory(popularinthe1950sand60s)B.F.Skinner,WatsonViewpoint:Languagelearningisakindofbehaviorsimilartootherhumanbehavior.Languageislearntinmuchthesamewayasanythingelseislearnt.都是经过刺激一反应而逐渐形成习惯的结果stimulus一organism一response(((input thelearnerimitatione.g.‘Thisisapencil一‘Thisisapencil'.fourstepsforachildtoacquirehis/herL1:Imitation一reinforcement一repetition一habituation模仿 强化 重复 成形ThecognitiveapproachPigget,(Swiss),Vygovsky,(FormerSoviet)viewpoint:Children'slanguagedevelopmentreliesontheirunderstandingoftheworldorcognition.it'sdifferentfromthenativistapproachL1acquisitionvs.FLLphysiologicalaspectcognitiveaspectaffectiveaspectsocioculturalaspectlearningcondition三.AnalyzingLearnerlanguageContentsoflearningContrastiveAnalysisErrorAnalysisContrastiveInterlanguageAnalysisContrastiveAnalysisWhatisContrastiveanalysis？Asystematicmethodofcomparingtwoormorelanguagesorsubsystemsoflanguagesinordertodetermineboththedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweenthem.HypothesisofcontrastiveanalysisThestrongversionItispossibletocontrastthesystemofonelanguage(thegrammar,phonologyandlexicon)withthesystemofasecondlanguageinordertopredictthedifficultieswhichaspeakerofthesecondlanguagewillhaveinlearningthefirstlanguage,andtoconstructreadingmaterialstohelpherlearnthatlanguage.theweakversionLinguistsonlyusethebestlinguisticknowledgeavailabletotemtoaccountforobserveddifficultiesinL2learning.Itdoesnotrequirethepredictionofthosedifficulties,andconversely,ofthoselearningpointsthatdonotcreateanydifficulties.Itonlytriestoexplainthosedifficulties.ProceduresofCA1Descriptionaformaldescriptionoftherelevantfeaturesofeachlanguagecompared.Selectionaselectionofsubsystemspredictedtopresentdifficultyinordertoestablishthecomparability.Comparisonandcontrasttheidentificationofareasofdifferenceandsimilarity;andPredictionidentificationofpossibleareasthatcauseerrors.ErrorAnalysisWhatisEA?Itaimstofindouthowwellthelearnersknowabouthislanguage;findouthowthelearnerslearnanL2;obtaininformationoncommondifficultiesinL2learning;ServeasanaidinteachingorinthepreparationandcompilationofteachingDefiningerrorsTillnow,thereisstillcontroversyofhowlanguageerroris.However,itisstillpossibletoprovideamoresafedefinitionoferror.Basedonmanyscholars,wecoulddefineerroras:theincorrectorinappropriateuseorcomprehensionofthetargetlanguage,whichseemstobedeviantfromwhatregardedasthenormbynativespeakersbecauseofthefactorslikelanguagedifferencesandsimilarities,languagetransfer,ignorance,forgetting,anxiety,falselearningstrategies,etc.TheNatureofErrorsTodoagoodjobinthestudyoferrors,its'essentialtounderstandwhattheerroris.Thenatureofanerrorcouldnotmerelybeaccountedforas“failureinhabit-formation”asarguedbybehavioristsor“distance”betweenlearners'UG(UniversalGrammar)andtheTL(TargetLanguage)asappealedbymentalists.Infact,errorscouldappearbecauseofvariousfactorsconcerninglanguagelearning,andthenatureofanerrorwillbedifferentaccordingly.AspectofKnowledgestudentshavetolearnmanyrulesorprinciplesofthetargetlanguagebyformalinstruction,andnaturally,thelackoftherelatedknowledgeoftargetlanguagewilldirectlyresultinerrors.Forexample,iflearnershaven'tmasteredtherulesofpassivevoiceorsubjunctivemood,it'shardforthemtorecollecttherequiredknowledgefrommemoryandtherefore,errorsareinevitable.AspectofCognitionAsamatteroffact,whererateisconcerned,thereisevidencethatolderlearnersarebetterthanyoungeronesinunderstandingthelanguage.Therefore,itisnaturaltoseethatastosomecomplexitems,youngerlearnerstendtomakeerrorseasily.Itisjustforthesamereasonthatwecouldnotexpectthelearneratthebeginningstagetomasterthe“subjunctivemood”orevenmorecomplicatedAspectofAffectionLearners'affectioninfactplaysanimportantroleinlearning,whichnoonecanignore.Negativeinfluenceonlearners'affectionwilldirectlyresultindeclineoflearninginnately,whichcouldbemanifestedinvariousaspects.Students'anxiety,self-esteem,lowermotivationaswellassomeotheraffectivefactorswillforsureleadtoerrorstosomeextentiftreatedinappropriately.HowtodealwitherrorsCollectingdescribingIdentifyingAnalyzingEvaluationCorrectionErrorTreatmentCorrectionmustbecarriedoutaccordingtothesituationdelicately.Inaneffectivecorrection,factorsliketheteacher,students,peers,etc.mustbeconsideredcomprehensively.Inall,thereareatleastthefollowingwaysforteacherstochoose:ProvidingUsefulFeedbackSelf-CorrectionPeerCorrectionDynamicTeacherCorrectionEstablishingStudents'ErrorPortfolio四.IdentifyLearnerDifferenceContentsofthischapterLearningStylesLearningStrategiesLanguageaptitudeLearningIntelligenceLearningmotivationLearningpersonalityLearningageLearningStylesDefinitionofLearningStylesLearningstylereferstothewayalearnerlikestolearn.Itisputintoactionbyspecificlearningstrategies.AccordingtoGass(2008),learningstyleisthepreferencesthatanindividualhasofobtaining,processing,andretaininginformation.Inotherwords,howdoindividualsapproachthetaskoflearning?Thetermlearningstyleisoftenusedinterchangeablywithpersonality,althoughtheformerisundoubtedlymorevariable,whereasthelatterreferstoastabletraitofanindividual.Whatarethenecessaryaspects?AccordingtoOxfordandAnderson(1995),therearesixinterrelatedaspects:Thecognitiveaspect:preferredorhabitualpatternsofmentalfunctioningTheexecutiveaspect:theextenttowhichlearnerslookfororder,organization,andclosureinmanagingthelearningprocesses.Theaffectiveaspect:attitudes,beliefs,andvaluesthatinfluencewhatthelearnerfocusonmost.TheSocialaspect:thepreferreddegreeofinvolvementwithotherpeopleinlearning.Thephysiologicalelement:involveswhatareatleastpartlybasedonsensoryandperceptualtendenciesofthelearners.Thebehavioralaspect:tendencytoactivelyseeksituationscompatiblewiththeirownlearningpreferences.TypesoflearningstylesVisuallearner:throughseeing••Visuallearnerneedtoseetheteacher'sbodylanguageandfacialexpressiontounderstandthecontent—sittinginthefrontThinkinpicturesandlearnbestfromvisualdisplays:diagrams,illustratedtextbooks,videos,flipchartsandhand-outsTakenotestogettheinformation.Audiolearner:throughlistening…Learnbestthroughverballectures,discussions,talkingthingsthrough,listeningtoothersGetmeaningthroughlisteningtotoneofvoice,pitch,speedandothernuances.Writteninformationmayhavelittlesenseuntilitisheard.Oftenbenefitfromreadingaloudandusingtaperecorder.Hands-Onlearner:throughdoing…Learnbestthroughhands-onappraoch,activeexploringthephysicalworldaroundthem.It'shardforthemtositstillforlongperiodsandmaybecomedistractedbytheirneedforactivityandexploration.Analyticvs.Global:attentivetodetailsorsummativeAnalytic:Tendtothinkandanalyze;prefercontrastiveanalysisanddiscrimination,notsensitivetosocial/affectivefactors,oftenfocusongrammarGlobal:avoidanalysis,canconversewithoutknowingallthewords,sensitivetothesocial-emotionalcontentExtrovertvsIntrovert:talkativeorsilentExtrovert:Energizedbytheoutsideworld,interaction-oriented,outgoing,broadinterests,tendtoreflectlater.Introvert:Energizedbytheinnerworld,preferconcentration;focusonthoughtsandconcepts,fewerinterests,butdeepones,reflectiveThetypicalextrovertissocial,likeparties,needstohavepeopletotalkto,anddoesnotlikestudyingbyhimself.Hecravesexcitement,takeschances,oftenstickshisneckout,andisgenerallyanimpulsiveindividual.Healwayshasareadyanswer,andgenerallylikeschanges.Thetypicalintrovert,ontheotherhand,isaquiet,retiringsortofperson,introspective,fondofbooksratherthanpeople;heisreservedanddistant,exceptwithintimatefriends.Hetendstoplanaheadanddistruststheimpulseofthemoment.Hedoesnotlikeexcitement,takesmattersofeverydaylifewithproperseriousness,andlikesawell-orderedlife.Intuitivevs.SequentialwithorwithoutdirectionsIntuitive:Lookforpossibilities,followhunchesandgobyfeelthanbeconstrainedbyguidelines.Sequential:Liketoworkinastep-by-stepmanner;followdirectionscarefully,tendtolinearandsensory-oriented.Closure-Orientedvs.Open-Oriented:inaflexibleorrigidmannerClosure:Lovetomakelistsandfollowthem;wantimmediateclosureandcontrol;lowtoleranceforambiguity,wanttoknowanswersimmediately,hardworkinganddecisive,prefertoplan,seedeadlinesashelpful.Open:Thinklearningshouldbefun,canmakeworkintoplay,makelists,butdon'tcheckoffeachitem,beflexible,spontaneous,opentochange,hightoleranceforambiguity,seedeadlineasartificialandarbitraryImpulsivevs.Reflective:aggressiveorcarefulImpulsive:processmaterialatahighspeedwithlowaccuracy,takerisksandguessesReflective:processmaterialatalowspeedbuthighfrequency,avoidrisk-takingandguessing.Fieldindependencevs.fielddependence:focusonpartorwholeFieldindependence场独立:beabletohandlethelanguagepartsaswellasthewholewithoutbeingdistracted.Fielddependence场依赖:needcontexttofocusandunderstandsomething;takeeachlanguagepartoneatatime:cannotseethetreesfortheforest.Learnerstrategies“Givepeopleafishandyoufeedthemforaday;teachthemtofishandyoufeedthemforlife.”给人以鱼，一日食鱼;授人予渔，终身得鱼。1.Improvelearners'leaningproficiency.Maketheirlearningmoreeffectiveandhelpthembecomesuccessfullanguagelearners.Benefittheirlife-longlearningandindependentlearning.Whatislearner'sstrategy?Thatisthespecifictechniquesusedbythelanguagelearnerinlearningandusinglanguage.DefinitionoflearningstrategiesSpecifictechniquesthatweemployindealingwithlearningalanguage.Thatis,howtoprocess,store,andretrievewhatwehavelearnedinthebrain.研究者们从不同角度、不同侧重点给策略分类。Oxford将策略分为直接策略和间接策略(directandindirect)；2.O'MalleyandChamot'将策略分为原认知策略(mata-cognitivestrategies、认知策略(cognitivestrategies)和社会/情感策略(social/affectivestrategies)。直接影响学习的策略记忆策略：联想、利用图像和声音、有计划的复习、使用体态语认知策略：操练、接收和发出信息、分析和推理、为输入和输出构建框架补偿策略：合理猜测、拟补缺欠和不足间接影响学习的策略原认知策略：制定学习重点、计划并安排学习、评估学习效果情感策略：克服焦虑、鼓励自己、控制情绪社交策略：提问、与他人合作、理解他人(根据Oxford,1990)元认知策略事先计划、选择注意力、自我管理、自我监控、自我评价等认知策略使用参考资料、重复、分类、推理、利用图像、利用关键词、联想、做笔记、小结、重新组合、翻译等(根据O'Mally&Chamot,1990)2.2ClassificationoflearningstrategiesCriteria:cognitionpatternMeta-cognitivestrategies:abouttheprocedureOrganize/planManageMonitorEvaluateCognitivestrategies:abouttheactionRepetition,resourcing,grouping,not-taking,deduction,recombination,imagery,auditoryrepresentation,keyword,contextualization,elaboration,transfer,inferencingSocio-affectivestrategiesActivitiesstudentsusedtogetmoreopportunitiestobeexposedtoandpracticetheirknowledge.(Oxford,1995)CooperationQuestionsforclarificationGoodlanguagelearningstrategiesWhataregoodlearningstrategies?Typesofgoodlearningstrategies?Activeplanningacademic/explicitlearningstrategies,socialaffectivestrategiesaffective-strategies.Howtomakestudentsbegoodstrategiesuser?(afterreadingthecontent)Goodlanguagelearner'sstrategiesandeffectivelearningaconcernforlanguageformaconcernforcommunication(functionalpractice)anactivetaskapproachanawarenessofthelearningprocessacapacitytouses