英语词汇学1市公开课一等奖省名师优质课赛课一等奖课件

EnglishLexicologyName:ChenyuanE-mail:chenyuan0478@163.comTelNohatislanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itisaspecificsocialactionandacarrierofinformation.“Languageisman’swayofcommunicationwithhisfellowmanandItislanguagealonewhichseparatehimfromtheloweranimals”Whatislinguistics?Generallyspeaking,linguisticscanbedefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Tobemoreexact,linguisticsstudiesthegeneralprinciplesuponwhichlanguagesareconstructedandoperateassystemsofhumancommunication.Whatislexicology?Lexicologyisabranchoflinguisticsconcernedwiththestudyofthevocabularyofagivenlanguage.Itdealswithwords,theirorigin,development,structure,formation,meaningandusage.Aimsofthecourse:GiveasystematicdescriptionoftheEnglishvocabulary.OfferaninsightintotheoriginanddevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabulary.Discusstheproblemsofword-structureandword-formationStudytheuseofEnglishwords,theirmeaningsandchangesinmeaning,theirsenserelations.Thesignificanceofthecourse:

Developyourpersonalvocabularyandconsciouslyincreaseyourwordpower(activevocabulary).Understandword-meaningandorganize,classifyandstorewordsmoreeffectively.Raiseyourawarenessofmeaningandusages,usewordsmoreaccuratelyandappropriately.Developyourskillsandhabitsofanalyzingandgeneralizinglinguisticphenomenainyourlearningexperiences.Ultimatelyimproveyourreceptiveandproductiveskillsinlanguageprocessingaswellaslanguageproduction.RecommendedReadings:汪榕培、卢晓娟，1997，《英语词汇学教程》。上海：上海外语教育出版社。林承璋,,《英语语言学引论》。武汉：武汉大学出版社。林福美，1985，《当代英语词汇学》。合肥：安徽教育出版社。张维友，1999《英语词汇学》。北京：外语教学与研究出版社。张韵斐、周锡卿，1986，《当代英语词汇学概论》（AnIntroductiontoModernEnglishLexicology）。北京：北京师范大学出版社。Nation,I.S.P.1990.TeachingandLearningVocabulary.Boston:Heinle&Heinle.Nation,I.S.P..LearningVocabularyinAnotherLanguage.Cambridge:CUP.GradingHomeworkassignments

andattendance:30%FinalExam:70%ChapterIEnglishVocabulary:---AGeneralSurveyEnglishisalanguageofcomplexcomponents.Ontheonehand,English,asaGermaniclanguages,sharessimilargrammaticalstructuresandmanycommonwordswithotherlanguagesintheGermaniclanguagegroupsuchasGerman,Dutch,Danish,FlemishandSwedish.Ontheotherhand,halfofitsvocabularyisderivedfromtheLatindirectlyorFrenchandotherromancelanguages.Inaddition,Englishvocabularycontainsmanyborrowingfrommanyotherlanguagesintheworld,Hindi,Arabic,Malay,Chinese,AmericanIndians,etcItisnoexaggerationtosaythatEnglishhasanundoubtedcosmopolitanvocabulary.WhatwastheoriginalsourceofEnglishvocabulary?WhyandhowhasEnglishexpandeditsvocabularybyassimilatingsomanyforeignwordsinthecourseofitsdevelopment?WhataretheunderlyingreasonsfortherapidexpansionofEnglishvocabulary?HowisEnglishrelatedwithotherlanguagesintheworldintermsofvocabulary?Content1.1TheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamily1.2TheHistoricaldevelopmentofEnglishVocabulary

1.3NewSourcesofPresent-dayEnglishVocabulary1.4ModesofEnglishVocabularyDevelopmentWhatistheVocabulary?

:

Broadlyspeaking,allthewordsinalanguagetogetherconstitutewhatisknownasvocabulary.Thetermvocabularyusuallyreferstoacompleteinventoryofthewordsinalanguage.Butitmayalsorefertothewordsandphrasesusedinthevariantsofalanguage,suchasdialect,register,terminology,etc.ThereisatotalEnglishvocabularyofmorethan1million.TheroleofvocabularyinthelanguagesystemVocabularyisthebuildingmaterialofthelanguagesystem.Itisoneofthethereessentialelementsoflanguage:speechsounds,grammarandvocabulary.“Withoutgrammarverylittlecanbeconveyed,withoutvocabularynothingcanbeconveyed.”“…thereisasenseinwhichlearningaforeignlanguageisbasicallyamatteroflearningthevocabularyofthatlanguage.Notbeingabletofindthewordstoexpressyourselfisthemostfrustratingexperienceinspeakinganotherlanguage.”.Classificationoflanguages:1.

TypologicalClassification(类型分类法)(语法结构特点)Syntheticlanguage(综合语)showstherelationofwordsbyinflectionAnalyticlanguage(分析语)indicatestherelationofwordsinasentencebywordorder2.

GeneticClassification(谱系分类法)（语言共同起源和亲属关系）Sino-Tibetan(藏汉语系),Indo-European.(印欧语系),Semito-Hamitic（闪含语系),Bantu（班图语系),Uralic（乌拉尔语语系),Altaic（阿尔泰语系）,Malayo-Polynesian（马来-波利尼西亚语系）,Indian（印第安语系）

CaucasianFamily

（高加索语系）,Austro-AsiaticFamily(南亚语系)etc.语系（Family），语族（Sub-family），语支（Branch），分支（Sub-branch）

但大多时候人们用Branch代表语族，这是简略说法。

TheWorldLanguagesItisestimatedthatthereareabout5000languagesallovertheworld,whichcanbegroupedintoabout300languagefamilies,suchasSino-TibetanFamily,Indo-EuropeanFamily,AltaicFamily,andsoon.ChineseisamemberintheSino-TibetanFamily,whileEnglishisamemberintheIndo-EuropeanFamily.1.1TheIndo-EuropeanLanguageFamilyTheIndo-EuropeanFamilyhostsmostlanguagesofEurope,theNearEast,andIndia.LinguistshavedividedtheIndo-Europeanlanguagesintoseveralgroups,orbranches.Family(语系)vs.Branch（语支）Theonlydifferencebetweenabranchandafamilyisthatabranch’sproto-languagehasanidentifiedancestor:theancestorofProto-SiniticwasProto-Sino-Tibetan,butwedon’tknowwhattheancestorofProto-Sino-Tibetanis.Indo-Europeanfamily:Indo-Iraniangroup(印伊语族):Persian(波斯语),Sanskrit(梵文),Hindi(印地语).Urdu(乌尔都语),Bengali(孟加拉语)Armenian（亚美尼亚语族):ArmenianSlavic（斯拉夫语族）:Russian,polishHellenic（希腊语族）:ModernGreekItalic（意大利语族）:Latin,Italian,French,Spanish,Portuguese,RomanianCeltic（凯尔特语族）:Gaelic(盖尔语),Welsh,Briton(不列颠)Albanian（阿尔巴尼语族）:ModernAlbanianGermanic（日耳曼语族）:English,German,Dutch,Yiddish（意第绪语）,theScandinavianlanguages（斯堪纳维亚语）

Groupsofrelatedlanguageshaveacommonancestor.WerefertotheircommonancestorlanguagesbyusingtheProto-prefix:Proto-Italic

Proto-Celtic

Proto-Hellenic

Abranch’sproto-languagehasanidentifiedancestor:theancestorofProto-ItalicwasProto-Indo-European,butwedon’tknowwhattheancestorofProto-Indo-Europeanwas.

Proto-Indo-EuropeanTheGermanicBranchThebranchofIndo-EuropeanthatincludesEnglishiscalledtheGermanicgroup.Proto-GermanicwasprobablyspokeninnorthernGermanyandsouthernScandinavia.Proto-GermanicdevelopedintonotonlyEnglish,butalsoseveralotherlanguageswearefamiliarwith.TheGermanicBranchSomeGermanictribesmovedeastward,intowhatisnowRomaniaandUkraine（乌克兰）,anddevelopedthelanguagebranchknownasEastGermanic.ThemostimportantlanguageinthisgroupwasGothic（哥特语）.AllspeakersofEastGermaniclanguageseventuallyabandonedtheminfavorofotherlanguages,sotheEastGermanicbranchisnowextinct.Germanic

GermanicWestGermanic NorthGermanic EastGermanicEnglish Swedish GothicFrisian Danish VandalGerman Norwegian BurgundianYiddish Icelandic DutchAfrikaansTheNorthGermanicbranchincludesVikingNorse,whichdevelopedintoOldNorseandeventuallyintomodernScandinavian（斯堪纳维亚）languagessuchasIcelandic,Norwegian,Swedish,andDanish.EnglishisclassifiedasaTeutoniclanguage,thatis,aGermaniclanguage.Tobeexact,EnglishbelongstothelowWestGermanicbranchoftheIndo-Europeanfamily.

That’stosay,EnglishbelongtothegroupoflanguagestowhichGerman,Dutch,Danish,SwedishandNorwegianalsobelong.1.2TheEnglishPeopleandtheEnglishLanguage

OverviewofPeriodsofEarlyEnglishHistory

Pre-History—1066A.D.Pre-Roman/Pre-Historical

upto55B.C.RomanOccupation55B.C.–410A.D.Anglo-SaxonPeriod410–787A.D.VikingInvasions787–1066A.D.NormanConquestbeginsin1066Pre-Historical/Pre-RomanTheislandweknowasEnglandwasoccupiedbyaraceofpeoplecalledtheCelts.OneofthetribeswascalledBrythonsorBritons(wherewegetthetermBritain)TheCeltswerePagans(异教徒)andtheirreligionwasknowas“animism”aLatinwordfor“spirit.”CeltssawspiritseverywhereDruids(督伊德教(古代高卢人与不列颠人一个宗教)教徒)weretheirpriests;theirrolewastogobetweenthegodsandthepeopleImportantEventsDuringRomanOccupationJuliusCaesarbeginsinvasion/occupationin55B.C.Manyoftheirarmycampsarenowimportantcities,suchasGloucester,Winchester,Chester,Manchester,andsoon.AllthesenamesareformedfromtheRomanword

castra,whichmeansanarmedcamp.TheybroughtChristianitytotheCeltsOccupationcompletedbyClaudius(克劳迪亚斯)in1stcent.A.D.In410A.D.alltheRomantroopswithdrew.WhentheRomansleft,theGermanictribespouredintotheisland.Bytheendofthefifthcentury,WestGermanicspeakershadtakencontrolofEngland.TheChristianCeltswerewhollydefeated.TheywerepushedbackintomountainsofWales,Scotland,Ireland,wheretheirseparatelanguages—Welsh,GaelicandErsemaystillbeheard.St.Augustine奥古斯丁(the“other”St.Augustine!)landsinKentin597andconvertsKingAethelbert(kingofKent,theoldestSaxonsettlement)toChristianity;becomesfirstArchbishopofCanterburyImportantCulturalandHistoricalResultsoftheRomanOccupationMilitary—strongarmedforces(“legions”古罗马军团)PushedCeltsintoWalesandIrelandPreventedVikingsfromraidingforseveralhundredyears:C.WarrenHollisterwrites,“Rome’sgreatestgifttoBritainwaspeace”(15).InfrastructureGovernment(fellapartwhentheyleft)Walls,villas,publicbaths(someremainsstillexist)LanguageandWritingLatinwasofficiallanguagePracticeofrecordinghistoryledtoearliestEnglish“literature”beingdocumentaryReligionChristianitybeginningtotakehold,especiallyafterSt.AugustineconvertsKingAethelbertTheMostImportantResultsoftheRomanOccupationLatinheavilyinfluencedtheEnglishlanguageRelativePeace

ChristianitybeginstotakeholdinEngland(butdoesnotfullydisplacePaganismforseveralhundredyears)TheAnglo-SaxonPeriod

410-787ImportantEventsinthe(First)Anglo-SaxonPeriod410-450AnglesandSaxonsinvadefromBalticshoresofGermany,andtheJutes朱特人invadefromtheJutlandpeninsulainDenmarkTheGeats雅特人areatribefromJutlandNineAnglo-SaxonKingdomseventuallybecametheAnglo-Saxonheptarchy(七王国从5世纪到9世纪盎格鲁·撒克逊王国非正式联盟，由肯特、南撒西克斯、西撒西克斯、东撒西克斯、诺森布里亚，东英格兰和麦西亚组成)(Englandnotunified),or“SevenSovereignKingdoms”VikingInvasions787-1066VikingsBydefinition,Vikingsweresea-faring(explorers,traders,andwarriors)Scandinaviansduringthe8ththrough11thcenturies.Oddlyenough,theAnglo-Saxon(andJute)heritagewasnotmuchdifferentfromtheVikings’:they,too,wereScandinavianinvaders.Infact,someVikingswerealsocalled“Northmen”whichisrelatedtoyetanotherculture(thisoneFrench)whichmadeconquestofEngland—theNormans,andWilliamtheConquerorin1066.However,whentheVikingraidsbeganaround787,theAnglo-SaxonsweredifferentculturallyfromtheVikinginvadersExceptfortheCelts*andtheRomans,allofthecultureswhosuccessfullyinvadedEnglandinthefirstmillenniumwerefromNorthernEuropeatonetimeoranother.TheAngles,Saxons,Frisians,andJuteswerefromtheBalticregion,andtheNormans(1066)wereprimarilyfromNormandyandhadoriginallybeenfromNorway*theCeltswereindigenous(本土）atthetimeoftheRomanconquest,andarethereforeconsideredEngland’s“natives”ImportantResultsoftheVikingInvasionsPoliticallyandCulturallyContinuedpoliticalinstabilityandconflict(i.e.,tribalwar):therewasnocentralgovernmentorchurch*TheAnglo-Saxoncode(moreonthiswhenwereadBeowulf)Linguistically(TheEnglishLanguageatitsEarliest)TheEnglishlanguageis“born”duringthefirstmillenniumandisknownasOldEnglish(OE).Anglo-Saxonisthetermfortheculture.OldEnglishismainlyGermanic**ingrammar(syntaxandmorphology)andlexicon(words)thecoreofourmodernEnglishisvastlyinfluencedbythisearlylinguistic“DNA”(butevenGermaniclanguagesderivedfromatheoreticalProto-Indo-Europeanlanguage,thegrandparentofclassicallanguagessuchasGreek,Sanskrit,Latin,andGerman(**Remember:VikingswereGermanicpeople)LOTSofdialectsofOld-English,asonemightimagine.ThisisbecausetherewereseveralseparateKingdomsmanyfoundedbyessentiallyfiveorsixdifferentcultures:Angles,Saxons,Frisians,Jutes,Danes,andSwedes*AlfredtheGreat(ruledfromapprox.871-899A.D.)wasoneofthefirstAnglo-SaxonkingstopushVikingsback;infact,hewasoneofthefirstkingstobeginconsolidatingpower,unifyingseveraloftheseparateAnglo-SaxonkingdomsNormanInvasionIn1066attheBattleofHastings黑斯廷斯,theNormans(powerfulNorthernFrenchmen)defeatedtheEnglishandstartedacenturies-longconquestofEnglandTwoMostImportantEffects:FrenchbecomesofficiallanguageofpoliticsandpowerandexertsenormousinfluenceonOldEnglishEnglandbeginsunifyingunderaFrenchpoliticalsystem,muchofwhichisstillwithus(evenintheU.S.)today1.2TheHistoricalDevelopmentofEnglishThestudyofthehistoricaldevelopmentoftheEnglishvocabularyshouldnotbetreatedinisolationfromthehistoryandthegrowthoftheEnglishlanguageitself.UnderstandingthehistorymaygiveusaninsightintothenatureofEnglish:extremelyrichandheterogeneous,aheavyborrower,fullofsynonyms,globallanguage.◆TheEnglishpeopleareofamixedblood.TheearlyinhabitantsoftheislandwenowcalledEnglandwereCeltsorBritons.In55B.C.BritainwasinvadedbytheRomanconquerorJuliusCaesar.In410A.D.alltheRomantroopsreturnedtotheContinent,thusendingtheRomanoccupationofBritain.◆AtthebeginningofthefifthcenturyBritainwasinvadedbythreetribesfromNorthernEurope:theAngles,SaxonsandJutes.Thesethreetribesmergedintoonepeople.AndthethreedialectstheyspokenaturallygrewintoasinglelanguagetheEnglishlanguage.ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageisdividedintothreeperiods.TheOldEnglish(450-1100)TheMiddleEnglish(1100-1500)TheModernEnglish(1500-present)TheOldEnglish(450-1100)ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguagebeginswiththeconquestandsettlementofwhatisnowEnglandbytheAngles,Saxons,andtheJutesfromabout450AD.ThelanguagetheyspokewasAnglo-Saxon,whichreplacedtheCelticspokenbytheformerinhabitantsCelts.TheOldEnglish(450-1100)ThevocabularyofOldEnglishwaschieflyAnglo-SaxonwithasmallmixtureofOldNorsewordsasaresultoftheScandinavianortheDanishconquestsofEnglandintheninthcentury,suchas,cake,call,egg,knife,take,give,etc.TheEnglishcontinuedtoadoptwordsfromLatinduringtheOldEnglishperiodduetotheAnglesandSaxons’variouscontactswiththeRomans,suchas,candle,kettle,mountain,school,cup,etc.◆TheOEvocabulary,estimatedatthesizeof50,000to60,000words,isalmostpurelyGermantic.Althoughsome85%ofitisnolongerinuse,thosethatsurviveallbelongtothebasicwordstockofModernEnglish.◆OwingtotheChristianizingofBritainandtheVikings’invasionsoftherelativelyfewborrowingsaremainlyLatinandScandinavian.Some500Latinwords,manyofwhichhavetodowithreligiouslife,appearinEnglishwritings.Atleast900everydaywordsofScandinavianoriginhavesurvivedinModernStandardEnglish.ExamplesThemiddleEnglish(1150-1500)TheMiddleEnglishperiodisfrom1100to1500.ThemostimportanteventtoaffectthehistoryofEnglish,theNormanConquest(1066),tookplaceattheendoftheOldEnglishperiod.ThebigchangesthatthisinvasionproducedintheEnglishsocietywereaccompaniedbyequaleffectsinthevocabularyofMiddleEnglish.Aftertheirvictoryin1066attheBattleofHastingsunderWilliamtheConqueror,theNormansquicklyassumedleadershipandprivilegeinEngland.TheNormanswereoriginallyVikings—theirnamecomesfromNorthman(i.e.,‘Norse’).Inasense,theNormanconquestcanbeseenasyetanotherGermanicinvasion.Buttherewasadifferencethistime.TheNormanshadearlierbeengiventhecontrolofalargepieceoflandalongthenortherncoastofFrance—Normandy.AsFrenchsubjects,theyhadadoptedFrenchculture.SothelanguagetheybroughtwiththemwasnotaGermaniclanguage,butFrench.TheNormanFrenchimposedanewpoliticalandculturallifeonthelandofAnglo-Saxon,andchangedgreatlythedevelopmentoftheEnglishlanguage.TheNormanConquestvirtuallyintroducedFrench-EnglishbilingualismintoEngland.TheEnglishweredefeated,butnotkilledoff,norweretheydrivenfromtheircountry.Theywerereducedtothestatusofaninferiorpeople.NormanFrenchbecamethepolitespeech.TheNormandialectofFrenchbecamethelanguageoftheupperclass,whileEnglishcompletelylostitsscholarlyandliteraryimportance,andwasusedonlybythepeasantsandpeopleoftheworkingclass..Bytheendofthe11thcentury,almostallofthepeoplewhoheldpoliticalorsocialpowerandmanyofthoseinpowerfulchurchpositionswereofNormanFrenchorigin.ThisresultedinamassiveborrowingofFrenchwordsintoEnglishvocabularyBytheendofthe13thcentury,Englishgraduallycamebackintotheschools,thelawcourts,andgovernmentandregainedsocialstatusthankstoWyclifftranslationoftheBibleandthewritingsofChaucer.Over90%ofthelexiconwasofAnglo-SaxonorigininearlyMEperiod.BytheendoftheMEperiod,thisproportionhadfallento75%.Between1250and1500about9,000wordsofFrenchoriginpouredintoEnglish.Wecanfindwordsrelatingtoeveryaspectofhumansociety,e.g.Government,socialscales,law,religion,moralmatters,militaryaffairs,food,fashion,etc.Somefeatures:--retainedfewerinflection.--grammargenderdisappeared,andMEbecomealeveledlanguage.MEisclosertoModernEnglish.ModernEnglish(1500-uptonow)Subdivision:EarlymodernEnglishperiod(1500-1800)ModernEnglishbeganwiththeestablishmentofprintinginEngland.WilliamCaxtonsettinghispressinWestminsterIntheearlyperiodofModernEnglish,EuropesawanewupsurgeoflearningancientGreekandRomanclassics.ThisisknowninhistoryastheRenaissance.ThankstotheRenaissance(early14thC-1650),greatnumbersofLatinandGreekwordswereaddedtoEnglish.ScholarstranslatedliteraturefromLatinandGreekintoEnglish,soover10,000LatinandGreekwordsenteredtheEnglishlanguage.LatinandGreekwererecognizedasthelanguagesoftheWesternworld’sgreatliteraryheritageandofgreatscholarship.(Examples)LatemodernEnglishperiod(1800-present)ThiswasatimeofstabilizingandpurifyingtheEnglishlanguage.e.g..SamuelJohnsoneditedADictionaryoftheEnglishLanguage,settingstandardsfirusingEnglishwordsinspelling,meaningandusage.Inthemid-seventeenthcentury,EnglandexperiencedBourgeoisRevolutionfollowedbytheIndustrialRevolutionandrosetobeagreateconomicpower.Withthegrowthofcolonization.Britishtentaclesbeganstretchingouttoeverycorneroftheglobe.Englandbecameagreateconomicpower.Englishbegantoabsorbwordsfromallmajorlanguagesoftheworld.TheterritorialexpansionoftheEnglishEmpireresultedintheexpansionofEnglishwords.(examples3)Threemainfeatures:--almostcompletelostofendings;--theunprecedentedgrowthofscientificvocabulary;--theassertionofAmericanEnglishasadominantvarietyofthelanguage.InmodernEnglish,wordendingsweremostlylostwithjustafewexceptions.Englishhasevolvedfromasyntheticlanguagetothepresentanalyticlanguage.AcomparisonofthreephasesOldEnglishAperiodoffullinflectionalendingsMiddleEnglishAperiodofleveledendingsModernEnglishAperiodoflostendingsAnotherWayofLookingattheHistoryofEnglishOldEnglish400-1066Beowulf

(fromBeowulf!)“Gaæþawyrdswahioscel”(OE)=“Fategoeseverasitmust”(MnE)MiddleEnglish1066-1485Chaucer(fromCT)“WhanthatAprillewithhisshouressoote...”(ME)=“WhenthatAprilwithitssweetshowers...”(MnE)EarlyModernEnglish1485-1800Shakespeare(fromKL)“Sir,Iloueyoumorethanwordscanweildyematter”(EMnE)=“Sir,Iloveyoumorethanwordcanwieldthematter”(MnE)ModernEnglish1800-presentAusten(fromP&P)Itisatruthuniversallyacknowledged,thatasinglemaninpossessionofagoodfortunemustbeinwantofawife.OE=OldEnglishME=MiddleEnglishEMnE=EarlyModernEnglishMnE=ModernEnglishThe19thand20thcenturiessawanunprecedentedgrowthinscientificvocabularyasaconsequenceoftheindustrialrevolutionandthescientificexplorationanddiscovery.Sincethebeginningofthelastcentury,esp,afterWorldWarII,theworldhasseenbreathtakingadvancesinscienceandtechnology.Manynewwordshavebeencreatedtoexpressnewideas,etc.,yetmorewordsarecreatedbymeansofword-formation.AmericanEnglishbegantomaketheirwaytotheBritishIslesabout1820.ThedifferencesbetweenAmericanandBritishEnglisharefeltnotonlyinpronunciationandgrammar,butalsoinvocabulary.1.3NewSourcesofPresent-dayEnglishVocabularyAfterWorldWarII,neologisms

(newwordsornewmeaningsforestablishedwords)（新词语）sweptinatanyratemuchfasterthanthatofthepre-warperiod.Themainreasonsforthefrequentappearanceofneologismsarethree:1.Markedprogressofscienceandtechnology:SincetheendofWorldWarII,tremendousnewadvancesinallfieldsofscienceandtechnologyhavegivenrisetothecreationintheEnglishlanguageoftensofthousandsofnewwords.Thegreatmajorityofthesearetechnicaltermsknownonlytothespecialists,butacertainnumberofthemhavebecomefamiliartothepublicandpassedintogeneraluse.e.g.Wordsusedinconnectionwiththenuclearbomb:chainreaction,radioactivity,cleanbomb,overkill,neutronbombandmedium-rangeballisticmissilesandsoon.Wordsconnectedwiththeexplorationofspace:astronaut,countdown,capsule,launchingpad,spacesuit,andspaceshuttle,parkingorbitetc.2.Socio-economic,politicalandculturalchanges:

(aspectsthatconnectwiththeintroductionofnewwords)e.g.Newsocialhabitsandnewlivingconditions:

hirepurchase,creditcard,fringebenefit;chores,pressurecooker,microwaveoven,instantnoodle,supermarketetc.Drugaddiction:upper(astimulantdrug),downer(adepressantdrug)Somesubculture:hippie,yuppie,gay,lesbianetc.Women’sLiberationMovement:

Ms,chairperson,spokeswomen,saleswoman,feminism,malechauvinism,andsexism.Changesineducation:openclassroom“aninformalflexiblesystemofelementaryeducationinwhichopendiscussionsandindividualizedactivitiesreplacethetraditionalsubject-centeredstudies”,OpenUniversityetc.3.Theinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguages:

Englishischaracterizedbyamarkedtendencytogooutsideherownlinguisticresourcesandborrowfromotherlanguages.Althoughthisborrowinghassloweddown,itisstillanimportantfactorinvocabularydevelopment.e.g.discothequefromFrench,sputnikfromRussian,maotaifromChinese,typoon,Taiji,Jiaozi,aikido,blackbelt,Kongfu,etc.Thedevelopmentofscience,therapidchangesinsociety,thereceptiveandflexiblenatureofEnglishwithregardtotheinfluenceofotherculturesandlanguages---allthesehaveresultedinadramaticincreaseinvocabulary,agrowthwhichinturncontributestotherichnessandresourcefulnessoftheEnglishlanguage.1.4ModesofVocabularyDevelopmentCreationTheformationofnewwordsthroughword-formationprocessesbyusingtheexistingmaterials,namelyroots,affixesandotherelements.SemanticchangeAnoldformtakesonanewmeaningtomeetnewneed.Borrowing:Borrowedwordsconstitutesixtosevenpercentofallnewwords.•OldEnglish

(450–1100):BeginningofaninfluxofreligioustermsfromLatinandborrowingsofeveryd