英语教学法复习提纲

Unit LanguageandLanguage:isasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Itcanbeunderstoodinthefollowingsixaspects:System;symbolic;aibitrary;vocal;human;Structuralview:seeslanguageasalinguisticsystemmadeupofvarioussubsystems:fromphonological,morphological,lexical.Thefunctionalview:seeslanguageasalinguisticsystembutalsoasameansforngthings.Theinteractionalview:considerslang.asacommunicativetool,whosemainuseistobuildupandmaintainsocialrelationsbetweenpeople.Thelanguagelearningtheoryunderlyinganapproachormethodanswerstwoquestions:1)Whatarethepsycholinguisticandcognitiveprocessesinvolvedinlanguagelearning?2)Whataretheconditionsthatneedtobemetinorderfortheselearningprocessestobeactivated?avastamountofresearchhasbeendonefromallaspects,whichcanbebroadlydividedinto:Process-orientedtheoriesareconcernedwithhowthemindprocessesnewinformation,suchashabitformation,induction,makinginference,hypothesistestingandgeneralization.Condition-orientedtheoriesemphasizethenatureofthehumanandphysicalcontextinwhichlanguagelearningtakesplace,suchasthenumberofstudents,whatkindofinputlearnersreceive,andthelearningatmosphere.Twotheories:Someresearchersattempttoformulateteachingapproachesdirectlyfromthesetheories.Thebehavioristtheory(Skinner)--astimulus-responsetheoryofpsychology:Thekeypointofthetheoryofconditioningisthat"youcantrainananimaltodoanythingifyoufollowacertainprocedurewhichhasthreemajorstages,stimulus,response,andreinforcement"Cognitivetheory:Thetermcognitiveistodescribelooselymethodsinwhichstudentsareaskedtothinkratherthansimplyrepeat.Avarietyofelementsthatcontributetothequalitiesofagoodlanguageteacher:1)ethicdevotion,道德素质2)professionalqualities专业技能3) alstyles个人修AdjectiveswhichdescribefurtherEthicdevotion:warm-heartedhardworkingenthusiasticCaringKindwell-prepareddisciplinedProfessionalqualities:Creative,ResourcefulAuthoritativewell-informed见多识广Accuratespeakingclearlyally-trainedalstyles:FlexibleDynamicspatientAttentiveIntuitive有洞察力humorousHowcan eagoodlanguageWallace’s(1991)"Reflectivemodel"todemonstratethedevelopmentofprofessionalThedevelopmentofprofessionalcompetenceforalanguageteacherinvolvesStage1,Stage2,andGoal.Thestageislanguagetraining.AllEnglishteachersaresupposedtohaveasoundcommandofEnglish.Ofcourse,languageisalwayschangingsolanguagetrainingcannevercometoanend.Thesecondstageseemstobemorecomplicatedbecauseitinvolvessub-stages:learning,practice,andreflection.Thelearningstageisactuallythespecificpreparation.Thispreparationcanbe:1).learnfromothers' 2).learnreceived3).learnfromone'sownBothexperientialknowledge(othersandone'sown)andreceivedknowledgeareusefulwhentheteachersgotopractice.Thisisthecombinationof"craft"and"appliedscience"Thelearningstageisfollowedbypractice.Theterm"practice"canbeusedintwosenses.Inonesense,itisashortperiodoftimeassignedforstudentteacherstodoteachingpracticeaspartoftheireducation,usuallyunderthesupervision监督oftheirinstructors.Thispracticeisalsocalledpseudopractice.Theothersenseof"practice"istherealworkthattheteacherundertakeswhenhefinisheshiseducation.Unit2CommunicativePrinciplesandTheultimategoalofforeignlanguageteachingistoenablethestudentstousetheforeignlanguageinworkorlifewhennecessary.ThegoalofCLTistodevelopstudents'communicativeCommunicativeCompetencesimplymeansknowledgeofthelanguagesystem:grammaticalknowledgeinotherwords.Hymes(1979),communicativecompetenceincludesfourknowingwhethersomethingisformallypossible,whichisroughlyequivalenttoChomsky'slinguisticcompetence交流内容是否规范knowingwhethersomethingisunderstandabletohumanknowingwhethersomethingisinlinewithsocialknowingwhethersomethingisinfactdone:DopeopleactuallyuselanguagethisBasedontheconceptofcommunicativecompetenceandaimingatdevelosuchcompetence,communicativelanguageteachinghasthefollowingfeatures:Itstressestheneedtoallowstudentsopportunitiesforauthenticandcreativeuseofthelanguage.ItfocusesonmeaningratherthanItsuggeststhatlearningshouldberelevanttotheneedsoftheItadvocatestask-basedlanguageteaching.Studentsshouldbegiventaskstoperformorproblemstosolveintheclassroom.Itemphasizesafunctionalapproachtolanguage(i.e.whatpeopledowithlanguage,suchasinviting,apologizing,greetingandintroducing,etc.).RichardsandRodgers(1986:72)threeprinciplesofCommunicativelanguageCommunicationprinciple:ActivitiesthatinvolverealcommunicationpromoteTaskprinciple:Activitiesinwhichlanguageisusedforcarryingoutmeaningfultaskpromoearning.Meaningfulnessprinciple:Languagethatismeaningfultothelearnersupportshelearningprocess.Littlewood’s(1981)classificationofcommunicativeFunctionalcommunicative~Identifyingpictures~Discoveringidenticalpairs~Discoveringsequencesorlocations~Discoveringmissinginformation~Discoveringmissingfeatures~Discovering"secrets"~Communicatingpatternsandpictures~Communicativemodels~Discoveringdifferences~Followingdirections~Reconstructingstory-sequences~PoolinginformationtosolveaproblemSocialinteraction~Role-playingthroughcueddialogues~Role-playingthroughcuesandinformation~Role-playingthroughsituationandgoals--Role-playingthroughdebateordiscussion~Large-scalesimulationactivities~ImprovisationEllis(1990)haslistedsixcriteriaforevaluatingcommunicativeclassroomactivities:1).Communicativepurpose:2).Communicativedesire:3).Content,notform:4).Varietyoflanguage:5).NoteacherinterventionUnit3LessonLessonplanningmeansmakingdecisionsinadvanceaboutwhattechniques,activitiesandmaterialswillbeusedintheclass.WhyislessonplanningProperlessonplanningisessentialforbothnovice/beginnerandexperiencedBenefitfromlessonplanninginanumberofAclearlessonplanmakestheteacherawareoftheaimsandlanguagecontentsofthelesson.ItalsohelpstheteachertodistinguishthevariousstagesofalessonandtoseetherelationshipbetweenthemsothatthelessoncanmovesmoothlyfromonestagetoTheteachercsothinkabouthowthestudentscanbefullyengagedinthewhenplanningthelesson,theteacheralso esawareoftheteachingaidsthatareneeded.Lessonplanninghelpsteacherstothinkabouttherelativevalueofdifferentactivitiesandhowmuchtimeshouldbespentonthem.TheteachersoonlearntojudgelessonstagesandphaseswithgreaterPlansarealsoanaidtocontinuingAfterthelesson,theteachercanaddanevaluationtotheplan,identifyingthosepartswhichwentwellandthosewhichwerelesssuccessful.Therearefourmajorprinciplesbehindgoodlessonvariety,2)flexibility3)learnability,4)Definitionsofvariety,flexibility,learnability,andVarietymeansplanninganumberofdifferenttypesofactivitiesandwherepossibleintroducingstudentstoawideselectionofmaterialssothatlearningisalwaysinteresting,motivatingandnevermonotonousforthestudents.Flexibilitymeansplanningtouseanumberofdifferentmethodsandtechniquesratherthanbeingaslavetoonemethodology.Thiswillmaketeachingandlearningmoreeffectiveandmoreefficient.Learnabilitymeansthecontentsandtasksplannedforthelessonshouldbewithinthelearningcapabilityofthestudents.Ofcourse,thingsshouldnotbetooeasyeither.ngthingsthatarebeyondorbelowthestudents'coabilitywilldiminishtheirmotivation(Schumann,1999).Linkagemeansthestagesandthestepswithineachstageareplannedinsuchawaythattheyaresomehowlinkedwithoneanother.LanguagelearningneedsrecyclingandLessonplanningshouldbedoneattwoMacroplanningisplannin ertime,forinstance,theplanningforamonth,aterm,orthewholecourse.Microplanningisplanningforaspecificlesson,whichusuallylasts40or50Macroplanning 1)KnowingabouttheKnowingabouttheinstitution:3)Knowingaboutthe4)KnowingabouttheTheadvantageofaconcreteteachingTeacherscanfollowitintheclassandcheckwhattheyhaveTheplanwillbethebasisofarecordofwhathasbeencoveredinclass;Itwillmakeiteasiertomakeachievementtestslater;ItwillbegoodrecordsfortheentireWhatdoesalessonplaninclude?TeachingLanguagecontentsandskills,TeachingstagesandTheaimsofalessonlanguagecomponentstopresent,communicativeskillstoactivitiestoconduct,materialstobeused,teachingaidstobeLanguagecomponentsandBylanguagecontents,wemeanstructures(grammar),vocabulary,functions,topicsandsoon.Bylanguageskills,wemeancommunicativeskillsinvolvedinlistening,speaking,readingandwriting.TeachingstagesandTeachingstagesarethemajorstepsthatlanguageteachersgothroughintheclassroom.Proceduresarethedetailedstepsineachteachingstage.ThreeP'smodel:presentation,practiceandAtthepresentationstage,theteacherintroducesnewvocabularyandgrammaticalstructureswithreferencetotheircontextualizeduse.Atthepracticestage,thelessonmovesfromcontrolledpracticetoguidedpracticeandfurthertotheexploitationofthetextswhennecessary.Attheproductionstage,thestudentsareencouragedtousewhattheyhavelearnedandpracticedtoperformcommunicativetasks.Atthislaststage,thefocusisonmeaningratherthanformalaccuracy.Another3-stagesfrequentlyadvisedandadoptedinreadingPre-reading,while-reading,post-reading(Thismodelisalsooftenappliedinlisteninglessons,whichhavepre-listening,while-listeningandpost-listeningstages.)Whenpresentinganewstructure(presentationstage),ateacherneedstoconsiderthefollowing:whentofocusonthestructurewhentostudyitinwhethertopresentthestructureorallyorinwrittenwhentogiveoutinformationandwhentoelicitfromwhenandhowtousevisualaidstohelpwiththewhattofstudentsfailtoSamplelessonplansAIMS: c)….(includeCONTENTS1. 2.NEWLEXIS:a).b).3.STRUCTURE/GRAMMAR:a).b).TEACHINGPROCEDURES(ItshouldbespecificWARM-UP(3minutes): PRESENTATION(approx.7mins): EXPLOITATION(approx.10mins): PERFORMANCE(approx.15mins): OTHERACTIVITIES:Checkyesterday's(approx.Set,page73,ex.RESERVEACTIVITY:Substitution,game-COMMENTS:(Filledinimmediayafterthelesson).a).b).SamplelessonplanAIMS: c).(includeNEWVOCABULARY:threenewlexicalNEW Howabout-ingFunction:makingADDITIONALLANGUAGE:Declining:Idon'tfeellike-VISUALAIDS:SetofflashcardswithWARM-UP:Game(3minutes),Goingon ic:Youbringa/the/somePRESENTATION(approx.10Newvocabulary:(threenewlexicalitemsabove)b)Newstructure(flashc)model,spoken(BBdrawingsofPRACTICE(approx.15Repetitiondrill(backwardbuild-ups)b)Cuedsubstitution,chorusworkc)Publicpairs:cuedacceptance/refusalandcountersuggestions(flashcards)d)Ditto.Booksclosed e)PubliccheckPRODUCTION(toendoflesson,17Publicpairs,newsuggestions.b)Privatepairroleplay;Newsuggestion,countersuggestions,agreeingweekendactivities.c)Actingout.Volunteerpairs.d)Writeoutcreated:Completewritingofdialogues.(5.RESERVEACTIVITY:none)COMMENTS:(Filledin yaftertheUnit ClassroomTeachers’BeforetheclassDuringtheclass1 2 34Prompter, 5Participant,6 AftertheclassEvaluatorFurthercommentsonthedifferentrolesthattheteachersplayinthelanguageController:Theteacher1.thespace(activitiesrunsmoothly),2.thetime(dolockstepactivities)3.thewholeclass(Sshaveequalchance)4.theproduction(adegreeofaccuracy)Assessor:Theteacherdoestwo1).Correctingmistakes(notmakingabigfussbut2).anizingfeedback(focusingonSs’successanizer:Theteachershouldbeimportantanddifficultas1).Usingcreative/unlimitedway2).Envisagingactivities,3).Anticipatingtheproblems4).Givingclearandconciseinstructions5)Demonstrating6).Usingnativelanguagetoclarifyifnecessary7)Walkingaroundandmonitoring8)Rectifying订9)TakingmentalnotesPrompter:Theteachershoulddo:1).Givinghints2).Elicitingmore(bysaying”and…?”“Anythingelse?”Yes,butwhy…?Participant:Theteachershouldn’tdominateorappeartobeResource-provider:Wehavecriticizedthejug-and-mugmethod,buttheteachershouldwithholdhis/herreadinesstoprovideresources.FurthersuggestionsaboutthecommontypesofSsgrouTeacherspeakinglittle,TryingtoelicitPairTeachergivingclearestinstructions, Keeeyeson, Rearrangingtheseating,Explainingtheproblem, EncouragingSsGroupGrouSsaccordingtoseatingSsselectingtheirowngroupmembers,MixingstrongandweakSs,GivingdifferenttaskstostrongandweakSssepara GrouSsbydrawingAllthesemethodshaveadvantagesandIndividualstudy:Ithassome 1.Self-access2.Materialsaimedatself- 3.FlexibletimeHarmer’ssuggestionsonmeasuresforundisciplinedactsandbadlybehaving1).Actimmediay 2).Stoptheclass 4).Changetheactivity 5).TalktoSsafterclass6).UsetheinstitutionInordernottohurttheSs,Ur’sadviceonproblemsin1).Dealwithitquietly2).Don’ttake ally3).DonotuseUnit5TeachingThegoalsofteachingpronunciation:Consistency连贯性TobesmoothInligibility可理解性:TobeunderstandabletothelistenersCommunicativeefficiency:TohelpconveythespeakersmeaningThreeaspectsofpronunciationto Stress,intonation,OnecommonprobleminlearningEnglishof(NeglectstressandWaysofpracticingsoundsandtheirFocusingonasound单音练习:(soundsdifficulttolearn)Perceptionpractice知觉/性练习:(identifydifferentsounds)Productionpractice生练习:(developSs’abilitytoproduceSixtypesofproductionpractice(1).Listenand (2).Fillingtheblanks(3).Makeup(4).Usemeaningfulcontext(5).Usepictures(6).UsetonguePracticing1).Twokindsofstress:word-levelstress phrase-level2).ThreewaystoshowstresspatternofUsegestures,usethevoice,usethePracticingTwowaystomakeintonation:rising/fallingarrows;drawUnit6.TeachingWhataregrammarpresentationmethods?演示Deductivemethod演义/推;Inductivemethod归纳/诱导DeductiveDefinition:Itrelieson yzingandSteps:giving givingAdvantages:Tobesuccessfulwithselectedandmotivatedstudents;TosaveTohelptoincreasestudents’confidenceinsome ToteachgrammarintheisolatedTopaylittleattentiontomeaning;TobeoftenmechanicalInductiveDefinition:ItreliesoninducingSteps:give induceAdvantages:InductivemethodismoreeffectiveinthatstudentsdiscoverthegrammarrulesthemselveswhileengagedinlanguageuseUr’sdefinitionofgrammar"Practicemaybedefinedasanykindofengagingwith结合/保证thelanguageonthepartofthelearner,usuallyundertheteachersupervision,whoseprimaryobjective(aim/task)istoconsolida earning"(Ur,1988:11).Ur’ssixfactorscontributetosuccessfulgrammar1)Pre-learning.2)Volumeandrepetition(容量/重复.5)Teacherassistance.6)Twocategoriesofgrammar1).MechanicalpracticeactivitiesthatareaimedatformTwodrillsinmechanicalSubstitutiondrillsinmechanicalpractice:thestudentssubstituteapartinastructuresothattheygettoknowhowthatpartfunctionsinasentence.Sometimescertainpromptsaregiven.(p64):Transformationdrillsinmechanicalpractice:thestudentschangeagivenstructureinawaysothattheyareexposedtoanothersimilarstructure.Thetypeofexercisealsohelpsthestudentstohaveadeeperunderstandingofhowthestructuresareformedandhowtheyareused.2).Meaningfulpractice.thefocusisontheproduction,comprehensionorexchangemeaningthoughthestudents"keepaneyeon"thewaynewlylearnedstructuresareusedintheprocess.MeaningfulpracticeusuallycomesaftermechanicalUsingpromptsformeaningfulUsingpicture,mimeestures,informationsheet,keyphrasesorkeywordsasprompts.Thestudentsareaskedtoproducelanguagebasedonpicturesandkeyphrases(words)providedbytheteacher.5).Usingchainedphrasesforstoryling.6).UsingcreatedUnit7TeachingTheroleofvocabularyuncertaintystillremainsregardingWhatconstitutesavoca.Item?Whichvoca.itemsshouldbetaughtandlearned?Howvoca.canbetaughtandlearnedmosteffectively?SevensuggestionshelteacherstopresentnewPrepareexamplestoshowmeaning.2).Askstudents lthemeaning3).Thinkabouthowtoshowthemeaningofawordwithrelatedwordssuchassynonyms,antonymsetc.4).Thinkabouthowtocheckstudents'5).Thinkaboutthecontextinreallifewherethewordmightbeused.6).Thinkaboutpossiblemisunderstandingorconfusionthatstudentmayhave.Waystopresentandexplainl)Drawpictures,diagramsandmapstoshowmeaningsorconnectionofmeanings;2)Userealobjects;3)Mimeoract;4)Usesynonymsorantonymstoexplainmeanings;5)Uselexicalsets,e.g.cook:fry,boil,bake,andgrill; 6)Translateandexemplify,especiallywithtechnicalwordsorwordswith meaning;7)Usewordformationrulesandcommonaffixes.Whendoesvocabulary emorefunandWhenstudentsstudyvocabularytogether,sayingroups,throughvariousactivities,undertheteacher'ssupervision,whenstudentsunderstandthemeaningofthenewSomevocabularyconsolidationactivitiesthatcanbedonein1)Labeling标注词汇:2)Spottingthedifferences:3)Describinganddrawing:4)Playingagame:5)Usingwordthermometers6Usingwordseries7)Worldbingo9)Oddmanout:10)Synonymsandantonyms:11)Usingwordcategoriesword:12)Usingwordnet-DevelovocabularybuildingReview 2).Guessmeaningfrom3).anizevocabulary 4).UselearnedThecluescancontributetothediscovery(revealing)of（1)Thetopic;（2)Thegrammaticalstructure;（3)Thepossiblemeaningconnectionbetweenthegivenwordandotherwords;4）ThelinguisticpatternwherethewordUnit8TeachingReasonsforpoorLackofteachingmaterials(audioand Lackofequipment players,VCRs,VCDs,LackoftraininginhowtousetheListeningisnotincludedonmanyimportantLackofreal-lifesituationswherelanguagelearnersneedtounderstandspokenLessonstendtotestratherthantotrainstudents'listeningWhylisteningcanbemoredifficultthanDifferentspeakersproducethesamesoundsindifferentThelistenerhaslittleornocontroloverthespeedoftheinputofspokenSpokenmaterialisoftenheardonlyonce.Inmostcases,wecannotgobackandlistenagain 4)Thelistenercannotpausetoworkoutthemeaning likelytobedistortedbybackgroundnoiseorthemediathattransmitsounds. 6)Thelistenersometimeshastodealsimultaneouslywithanothertaskwhilelistening,suchasformalnote-taking,writingdowndirectionsormessagesfromephonecalls,oroperatingequipmentwhilelisteningtoinstructions.Onereasonforstudents'unsatisfactorylisteningThereisnotenoughvarietyinthematerialsthattheylistentoinclass.Inmostcases,thelisteningmaterialsaredailyconversationsorstories.Butinrealitywelistentofarmorethings,regardlessofwhichlanguageisused.Ifyoulookbackatthelistoflisteningsituations,youmayjudgethesituationsaccordingtothefollowingcriteria:1).Formalorinformal?2).Rehearsed（背诵/排练/练习）ornon-rehearsed?3).CanthelistenerinteractwiththespeakerorThecharacteristicsoflisteninginreal1) 2) 3)Visual4)Listener’s 5)Speaker’sadjustmentTwomajorpurposesinlistening.*Theisforsocial*ThesecondisforexchangingPrinciplesofteachingFocusonprocess:Howtoprocesstheinformation:Theyhavetohearwhatisbeingsaid, payattention, constructameaningfulmessageintheirmindbyrelatingwhattheyheartowhattheyalreadyknow.Combinelisteningandspeaking:WhyisitsoMostofthetimeinreallife,thesetwoskillsareneededatthesametime.Therearetwoproblemswiththisapproach:*Itdoesnotgivestudentschancetopracticelisteningandspeakingskillstogether.*Thelisteningcomprehensionquestionsdonottrainthestudentshowtolistenorhowtodevelopeffectivelisteningstrategies，andonlytesttheFocusoncomprehendingthreemaincategoriesaffectthedifficultyleveloflistening(l)Typeoflanguage (2)TaskorpurposeinContextinwhichthelisteningPre-listeningactivities:1) 2).SettingtheListeningfortheListeningforspecificWhile-listeningNospecificresponses2).Listenandtick3).Listenandsequence4).Listenandact5).Listenanddraw6).Listenandfill7).ListenandguessPost-listeningMultiplechoice 2).Answering3).Note-takingandgap- 4).Dictogloss:isarecentlydiscoveredlisteningactivitywhichrequirestheuseofcomprehensivelisteningskills.DictoglosshasfourPreparation.Theteacherpreparesthestudentsbybrieflytalkingaboutthetopicandkeywordsoraskinggeneralquestions.Dictation.Theteacherdictatesthetexttwice.Forthetime,studentsjustlistenandfocusonthemeaning.Forthesecondtime,thestudentstakeextensivenotes.Reconstruction.Basedontheirnotes,thestudentsworkinpairs roupsandreconstructthetexttheyhaveheard.ysisandcorrection.Thestudentscomparetheirversionofthetextwiththeoriginal,sentencebysentence.Unit TeachingThenatureofspokenlanguage:(characteristicsofspoken1).speakingisathatthestudentswillbejudgeduponmostinreal-life2).Spontaneousspeech:meansthatitisfulloffalsestarts,repetitions, sentences,andshortphrases.3).Anotheraspectofproducingspokenlanguageisthetime-Thestudentsmustbeabletoproduceunplannedutterancesinrealtime,otherwisepeoplewillnothavethepatiencetolistentothem.4).erviewingsomeone,orbeingTwofactorsshouldbeconsideredindesigningspeakingthelanguageproficiencylevelofthestudents.Ifweaskthemtodotasksthatareabovetheirlevel,theywillsimplytogivethestudentstasksattimesthatchallengethem,becauseifspeakingtasksareallwastooeasy,theycso edemotivated.Thereareseveralothersuccessfulfactorstoconsiderwhendesigningspeaking1).umforeigntalk: Thestudentstalkalotintheforeignlanguage.Onecommonprobleminspeakingactivitiesisthatstudentsoftenproduceoneortwosimpleutterancesintheforeignlanguageandspendtherestofthetimechattingintheirnativelanguage.Anothercommonproblemisthattheteachertalkstoomuchofthetime,thustakingawayvaluablepracticetimefromthestudents.EvenparticipationAsuccessfultaskshouldencouragespeakingfromasmanydifferentstudentsaspossible.HighmotivationTeacherscandoalottoincreaseandmaintainthemotivationofstudentsbythetypesoftasksthattheyanizeinclass.Studentsareeagertospeak,whenthetopicisinterestingorthereisaclearobjectivethatmustbereached.Againgreatcareshouldbetakentomakesurethetaskisinlinewiththestudents'abilitytodealwiththetask.RightlanguagelevelInasuccessfulspeakingtask,thelanguageisattherightlevel.Thetaskmustbedesignedsothatstudentscancompletethetasksuccessfullywiththelanguagethattheyhave.UsinggroupworkinspeakingReasons:Thecharacteristicofasuccessfulspeakingtaskisthatstudentstalkalotintheforeignlanguage.Asecondreasonfordesigningspeakingtaskstobecompletedinsmallgroupsisthatoftenstudentsareafraidofcriticismorlosingfaceortheysimplyfeelshyaboutspeak ortoafewotherpeople.Theadvantagesofusinggroupinspeakingtasks:Smallgroupworkhelpsstudentslearntoworkcooperativelyandithelpsthemdevelopinter alskills.Theylearnhowtoworkwithawidervarietyofpeople.Developmentoftolerance宽容,mutualrespectandharmonyPurposeofspeaking:Sincespeakingisthereciprocal/mutualoflistening,thesameistrueofspeaking.So,itmakessensetodesigntaskstohelpthestudentspracticebothlisteningandspeaking.LittlewooddividescommunicativespeakingactivitiesintotwoFunctionalcommunication 2).SocialinteractionFewtypesofspeakingInformation-gapstudentshavedifferentinformationandtheyneedtoobtaininformationfromeachotherinordertofinishthetask.Dialoguesandrole-Dialogue:isalwaysbetweenatleasttwopeople,sowecanneverpredictwhattheother willsaynext.Arole-meansthestudentscanpretendtheyareactingassomeoneThenaturalspeechofnativespeakers:Thenaturalspeechofnativespeakersisoftenphrasesorsentencefragmentsfullofpauses,falsestarts,andrepetitionsaswepointedoutinaprevioussection.DisadvantagesofmostdialoguespresentedinNotauthenticornatural. OnlytoteachstudentsthegrammarofthelanguageMostdialoguesaretaught.StudentsmemorizedialoguesbyWhatcanteachersdotomakedialoguesmoreToturnthedialoguesintoroleTomakedialoguesmoresimilartoreal-ActivitiesusingpicturesAppropriatepicturesprovidecues,prompts,situationsandnon-verbalaidforcommunicationProblem-solvingOtherspeakingactivities:5).Findsomeonewho…6).BingoBingoisaneasygametosetupandcanbeusedtopractisemanylanguageareas.7).Changethestory8).NospecificresponsesUnit TeachingThissection(task1)attemptstoclarifyandillustratesomeaspectsofthenatureofreading.Ifthestudentsfailtounderstandthenatureofreading,theywilladoptinappropriateandineffectivereadingstrategies;Ifteachersfailtodoso,theywillbeunabletohelpthestudentstodevelopeffectivereadingskills.86TwotypesofreadingpracticeinReadingaloud Utteranceofeveryword Usually Usually Usuallytoshare UsuallytogetSkills Pronunciationand Skimming,predicting,Guessingunknownwords,Understandingdetails,Understandingrelationsbetweensentencesandbetweenparagraphs,Understandingreferences,UnderstandingActivitytype Collectiveactivity IndividualactivityManagementintheclassroom EasytomanageasitcanbeobservedandheardDifficulttomanageasteacherscannotseewhatisgoingoninthestudents'Effectivereadersdo:Theyhaveaclearpurposeinreading;Theyreadsilently;Theyrehrasebyphrase,ratherthanwordbyword;Theyconcentrateontheimportantbits,skimtherest,andskiptheinsignificantparts;Theyusedifferentspeedsandstrategiesfordifferentreadingtasks;Theyperceivetheinformationinthelanguageratherthanmentallytranslate;Theyguessthemeaningofnewwordsfromthecontext,orignorethem;Theyhaveandusebackgroundinformationtohelpunderstandthetext.Readingcomprehensionmeansextracting摘出(要点therequiredinformationfromthetextasefficientlyaspossible.Acharacteristic:Readingisasilentandindividualactivitysincethewriter'sintentionwasthatthetextshouldbereadnotheard.Twobroadlevelsinreading:i)visualsignalsfromtheii)acognitivetaskofinterpretingthevisualinformation,relatingthereceivedinformationwiththereader'sowngeneralknowledgeSkillsreadersneed:1Recognisingthescript/writingofalanguage2Understandingtheexplicitly/clearlystatedinformation3Understandingconceptualmeaning4Understandingthecommunicativevalue(functions)ofsentences5Deducingthemeaningofunfamiliarlexicalitems6Understandingrelationswithinsentences7Understandingrelationsbetweensentences8Understandingreferences9Recognizingindicatorsindiscourse10Recognizingthe anizationofthetext11MakingMoreefficientreadersalsoneedthefollowingstrategickills:DistinguishingthemainideafromsupportingdetailsSkimming:readingforthegistormainidea.Scanning:readingtolookforspecificinformation.Predicting:guessingwhatiscomingnext.Someprinciplesforteaching--Theselectedtextsandattachedtasksshouldbeavailabletothestudents.~Tasksshouldbeclearlygiveninadvance.Preferably,tasksshouldmotivatestudents.~Tasksshouldbedesignedtoencourageselectiveandinligentreadingforthemainmeaning~Tasksshouldhelpdevelopstudents'readingskills~Teachersshouldhelpthestudentsnotmerelytocopewithoneparticulartextinfrontofthembutwiththeirreadingstrategiesandreadingabilityingeneral.--TeachersshouldhelpthestudentstoreadontheirTwomodelsofteachingBottom-upmodelSometeachersteachreadingbyintroducingnewvocabularyandnewstructuresandthengoin erthetex tencebysentence.Thiswayofteachingreadingreflectsthebeliefthatreadingcomprehensionisbasedontheunderstandingandmasteryofallthenewwords,newphrases,andnewstructuresaswellasalotofreadingaloudpractice.Also,thisreadingfollowsalinearprocessfromtherecognitionofletters,towords,tophrases,tosentences,toparagraphs,andthentothemeaningofthewholetext.Top-downmodelItisbelievedthatinteachingreading,theteachershouldteachthebackgroundknowledgesothatstudentsequippedwithsucowledgewillbeabletoguessmeaning