考研英语模拟试卷（附答案及详解）

最新考研模拟试卷SectionIUseofEnglishDirections:Readthefollowingtext.Choosebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmarkA,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Anthropologyisthestudyofhumanbeingsascreaturesofsociety.It1itsattentionuponthosephysicalcharacteristicsandindustrialtechniques,thoseconventionsandvalues,which2onecommunityfromallothersthatbelongtoadifferenttradition.Thedistinguishingmarkofanthropologyamongthesocialsciencesisthatitincludesfbrseriousstudyothersocieties3ourown.Foritspurposesanysocial4ofmatingandreproductionisassignificantasourown.TotheanthropologistourcustomsandthoseofaNewGuineatribearetwopossiblesocialschemesfbr5acommonproblem,andinsofarasheremainsananthropologistheis6toa-voidanyweightingofone7theother.Heisinterestedinhumanbehavior,notasitisshapedbyonetradition,ourown,butasithasbeenshapedbyanytradition8.Heisinterestedinawide9ofcustomthatisfoundinvariouscultures,andhisobjectistounderstandthewayinwhichthesecultureschangeand10,thedifferentformsthroughwhichtheyexpressthemselvesandthe11inwhichthecustomsofanypeoplesfunctioninthelivesofthe12.Nowcustomhasnotbeencommonlyregardedasa13ofanygreatmoment.Theinnerworkingsofourownbrainswefeeltobeuniquely14ofinvestigation,butcustom,wehaveawayofthinkingJsbehavioratitsmostcommonplace.15,itistheotherwayround.Traditionalcustomisamassofdetailedbehaviormoreastonishingthan16anyonepersoncaneverevolveinindividualactions.Yetthatisarather17aspectofthematter.Thefact18firstrateimportanceisthepredominantrolethatcustom19inexperienceandbelief,andtheverygreatvarietiesitmay20.1.1A]pays[B]revolves[C]fastens[D]draws[A]distinguish[B]prohibit[C]dispel[D]exempt[A]of[B]from[C]for[D]than[A]regulation[B]execution[C]prosecution[D]disposition[A]meditatingon[B]imposingon[C]tanglingwith[D]dealingwith|A]acknowledged|B|authorized|C|bound|D|credited[A]infavorof[B]insteadof[C]ratherthan[D]incontrastwith[A]however[B]though[C]whatsoever[D]indeed[A]option[B]span[C]prototype[D]rangeA]deviate(B|fluctuate[CJdifferentiate|D]segregate[A]manner[B]means[C]case[D]context[A]personnel|B]locality[C]natives[D]individuals[A]subject'[B]object[C]objective[D]subjective|A]worth[B]worthwhile[C]worthy(D|rewarding[A]Asamatteroffact[B]Onthewhole(C]Ingeneral[D]Ontheotherhand[A]that[B]why[C]how[D]what[A]vulgar[B]lofty[C]grim[D]trivial[A]in[B]of[C]at|D]to[A]functions[B]plays[C]makes[D]leads[A]manifest[B]illustrate[C]reveal[D]indicateSectionIIReadingComprehensionPartADirections:Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)Text1Researchersinthefieldofpsychologyhavefoundthatoneofthebestwaystomakeanimportantdecision,suchaschoosingauniversitytoattendorabusinesstoinvestin,involvestheutilizationofadecisionworksheet.Psychologistswhostudyoptimizationcomparetheactualdecisionsmadebypeopletotheoreticalidealdecisionstoseehowsimilartheyare.Proponentsoftheworksheetprocedurebelievethatitwillyieldoptimal,thatis,thebestdecisions.Althoughthereareseveralvariationsontheexactformatthatworksheetcantake,theyareallsimilarintheiressentialaspects.Worksheetsrequiredefiningtheprobleminaclearandconcisewayandthenlistingallpossiblesolutionstotheproblem.Next,thepermanentconsiderationsthatwillbeaffectedbyeachdecisionarelisted,andtherelativeimportanceofeachconsiderationofconsequenceisdetermined.Eachconsiderationisassignedanumericalvaluetoreflectitsrelativeimportance.Adecisionismathematicallycalculatedbyaddingthesevaluestogether.Thealternativewiththehighestnumberofpointsemergesasthebestdecision.Sincemostimportantproblemsaremultifaceted,thereareseveralalternativestochoosefrom,eachwithuniqueadvantagesanddisadvantages.Oneofthebenefitsofapencilandpaperdecision-makingprocedureisthatitpermitspeopletodealwithmorevariablesthantheirmindscangenerallycomprehendandremember.Ontheaverage,peoplecankeepaboutsevenideasintheirmindsatonce.Aworksheetcanbeespeciallyusefulwhenthedecisioninvolvesalargenumberofvariableswithcomplexrelationships.Arealisticexampleformanycollegestudentsisthequestion"WhatwillIdoaftergraduation?"Agraduatemightseekapositionthatoffersspecializedtraining,pursueanadvanceddegreeortravelabroadforayear.Adecision-makingworksheetbeginswithasuccinctstatementoftheproblemthatwillalsohelptonarrowIt.Itisimportanttobeclearaboutthedistinctionbetweenlong-rangeandimmediategoalsbecauselong-rangegoalsofteninvolveadifferentdecisionthanshort-rangesones.Focusingonlong-rangegoals,agraduatingstudentmightrevisethequestionaboveto"WhatwillIdoaftergraduationthatwillleadtoasuccessfulcareer?**Whatisthepassagemainlyabout.V?|A|Atooltoassistinmakingcomplexdecisions.Acomparisonofactualdecisionsandidealdecisions.Aresearchonhowpeoplemakedecisions.Differencesbetweenlong-rangeandshort-rangedecisionmaking.Ofthefollowingsteps,whichisthefirststeptowardsanoptimaldecision?Listingtheconsequencesofeachsolution.Calculatinganumericalsummaryofeachsolution.|C]Decidingwhichconsequencesaremostimportant.[D]Writingdownallpossiblesolution.Accordingtodecision-makingworksheettheory,anoptimaldecisionisdefinedasonethathasthefewestvariablestoconsider.usesthemostdecisionworksheets.carriesthegreatestvalueassignedtoit.|D|isagreedtobythegreatestnumberofpeople.Theword"succinct"inthelastparagraphisclosestinmeaningto[A]creative.[B]satisfactory.[C]personal.[D]concise.Towardthedecisionworksheet,thewriterVsattitudecanbesaidtobe[A]neutral.[B]approving[C]ambiguous[D]biased.Text2Asthe21stcenturybegins,anumberofleadersinpolitics,education,andotherprofessionsbelievethattheUnitedStatesmustadoptsomenewvaluestogoalongwiththeoldertraditionalones.WhatnewvaluesshouldAmericansadopt.?Thisisverydifficultquestiontoanswer.Certainly,agreatervalueshouldbeplacedontheconservationofnaturalresources;Americansshouldlearntouselessandwasteless.ButconservationhasneverbeenastrongvaluetoAmericans,whohavebelievedthattheircountryofferedanendless,abundantsupplyofnaturalresources.Recently,progresshasbeenmade-moreandmoreAmericansarerecyclingtheirpaper,cans,bottles,andothergoods-butoldwastefulhabitsdiehard.Furthermore,theneedtoprotecttheenvironmentmayconflictwiththeneedfbrjobs,asintheNorthwest,whereconservationistsbattlelumbercompaniesthatwanttocutdownancientredwoodtrees.AbeliefinthevalueofconservationisstillcomparedwithotherAmericanvalues;itcanbecomestrongeronlyasAmericansseetheneedforitmoreclearly.Inaddition,Americansmayneedtoplaceastrongvalueoncooperationonanationalscaletoachieveimportantnationalobjectives.TheAmericanideaofthenationalgoodhasneverbeenbasedonnationalcooperationbutratheronthefreedomoftheindividual,maintainingthoseconditionsthatprovidethegreatestfreedomandprosperityfortheindividual.ItisfarmoredifficultforAmericanstoacceptsharedsacrificefbrthecommongoodandwell-beingoftheentirecountry.Forexample,althoughthemajorityofAmericansbelievethatitisextremelyimportanttobalancethenationalbudgetandreducethedeficit,theydonotwanttoseecutsingovernmentprogramsthatbenefitthempersonally.TheAmericanvalueofcompetitionalsohindersthedevelopmentofaspiritofnationalcooperation.Competitionsometimesencouragesfeelingsofsuspicionratherthanthemutualtrustthatisnecessaryforsuccessfulnationalcooperation.AlthoughAmericansoftencooperatesuccessfullyonthelocallevel-inneighborhoodgroupsandchurches,forexample-theybecomesuspiciouswhenthenationalgovernmentbecomesinvolved.Forexample,onthenationallevel,theymayseethemselvesaspartofaninterestgroupthatiscompetingwithotherinterestgroupsforgovernmentfunds.Arequestbythenationalgovernmentforsharedsacrificemaybeseenascoerciveanddestructiveratherthanvoluntaryandconstructive.However,thedemandsofthe21stcenturymaycompelAmericanstoplaceagreatervalueonnationalcooperationtosolveproblemsthataffectthemall,directlyandindirectly.Thebesttitleofthispassagecouldbe[A]WhichIsBetter,NewValueorOldValue?[B]Conservationvs.NeedforJobs.[C]TheNeedforNewNationalValues.ID|CooperationandCompetition.WhichofthefollowingisNOTtrue,accordingtothepassage?|A]SomeAmericanswouldnotacceptthevalueofconservationandenvironmentprotection,becausethisvaluewouldprobablymakethemunemployed.[B]ManyAmericanshavebeenusedtowasting,soitwillbedifficultforthemtoacceptthenewvalueofconservation.|C]SomeoldvaluesarestillinghavingaverystronginfluenceonAmericanpeople,althoughtheyareharmfulinthisnewage.[D]MostAmericanshavefullyrealizedtheneedtoprotecttheenvironment,sotheyhavetakenmeasurestorecyclejunkedgoods.WhatisthebasisfortheAmericannotionofnationalgood?[A]Individualfreedom.[B]Personalproperty.|C]Nationalcooperation.[D|BothAandB.Theauthorgaveanexampleinthesecondparagraphinorderto[A]emphasizetheneedtoplaceastrongervalueonnationalcooperation.|B]explainwhytheAmericanideahasbeenbasedonindividualfreedom.[C]illustratethefactthatAmericanswillnotsacrificetheirpersonalinterestforthegoodoftheentirecountry.[D]supporttheideathatAmericaneedsthespiritofnationalcooperationtoachieveimportantnationalobjectivesinthe21stcentury.Thevalueofcompetitionworksagainstthespiritofnationalcooperationinthat[A]itmakespeoplenotbelieveinthegovernment.[B]itcausespeopletosuspectbutnottotrusteachother.|C]itmakespeopleevenunabletocooperatewellonlocallevels.[D]itencouragespeopletogainsuccessthroughindividualhardwork.Text3TheissueofonlineprivacyintheInternetagefoundnewurgencyfollowingtheSept.11terroristattacks,sparkingdebateoverstrikingthecorrectbalancebetweenprotectingcivillibertiesandattemptingtopreventanothertragicterroristact.Whilepreventingterrorismcertainlyisofparamountimportance,privacyrightsshouldnotbedeemedirrelevant.Inresponsetotheattacks.Congressquicklypassedlegislationthatincludedprovisionsexpandingrightsofinvestigatorstointerceptwire,oralandelectroniccommunicationsofallegedhackersandterrorists.CivillibertiesgroupsexpressedconcernovertheprovisionsandurgedcautioninensuringthateffortstoprotectournationdonotresultinbroadgovernmentauthoritytoerodeprivacyrightsofU.S.citizens.Nevertheless,causingfurtherconcerntocivillibertiesgroups,theDepartmentofJusticeproposedexceptionstotheattorney-clientprivilege.OnOct.30,AttorneyGeneralJohnAshcroftapprovedaninterimagencyrulethatwouldpermitfederalprisonauthoritiestomonitorwireandelectroniccommunicationsbetweenlawyersandtheirclientsinfederalcuskxiy.includingthosewhohavebeendetainedbutnotchargedwithanycrime,wheneversurveillanceisdeemednecessarytopreventviolenceorterrorism.Inlightofthisbroadeningefforttoreachintocommunicationsthatwerepreviouslybelievedtobe"off-limits,"theissueofonlineprivacyisnowanevenmorepressingconcern.Congresshastakensomelegislativestepstowardensuringonlineprivacy,includingtheChildrenVsOnlinePrivacyProtectionAct,andprovidedprivacyprotectionsfbrcertainsectorsthroughlegislationsuchastheFinancialServicesM(xlemizationAct.Thelegislationpassedtodatedoesnot,however,provideastatutoryschemefbrprotectinggeneralonlineconsumerprivacy.Lackingdefinitivefederallaw,somestatespassedtheirownmeasures.Butmuchofthislegislationisincompleteornotenforced.Moreover,itbecomesunworkablewhenstatescreatedifferentprivacystandards;theInternetdoesnotknowgeographicboundaries,andcompaniesandindividualscannotbeexpectedtocomplywithdiffering,andattimesconflicting,privacyrules.Ananalysisearlierthisyearof751U.S.andinternationalWebsitesconductedbyConsumersInternationalfoundthatmostsitescollectpersonalinformationbutfailtotellconsumershowthatdatawillbeused,howsecurityismaintainedandwhatrightsconsumershaveovertheirowninformation.Ataminimum,CongressshouldpasslegislationrequiringWebsitestodisplayprivacypoliciesprominently,informconsumersofthemethodsemployedtocollectclientdata,allowcustomerstooptoutofsuchdatacollection,andprovidecustomeraccesstotheirowndatathathasalreadybeencollected.AlthoughvariousInternetprivacybillswereintroducedinthe107thCongress,thefbcusshiftedtoexpandinggovernmentsurveillanceinthewakeoftheterroristattacks.Plainly,governmenteffortstopreventterrorismareappropriate.Exactlyhowtheseexigentcircumstanceschangethenatureoftheonlineprivacydebateisstilllobeseen.Concerningtheprotectionofprivacyandincreasedsurveillanceofcommunication,theauthorseemstoinsiston[A]thepriorityoftheformeraction.[B]theexecutionofthelatterattheexpenseoftheformer.[C]tighteningbothpoliciesatthesametime.[D]abalancebetweenthetwoactions.Theauthorimpliesinthesecondparagraphthat[A]theproposaloftheDepartmentofJusticeisunjustified.]B|surveillanceofanysuspectcommunicationisnecessary.[C]civillibertiesgroupsshouldnothaveshownsuchgreatconcern.[D]exceptionsshouldbemadeininterceptingcommunications.Intheeyesoftheauthor,theFinancialServiceModernizationAct[A]servesnomorethanasanewpatchonanoldrobe.[B]indicatestheCongress、'admirablemovetoprotectingprivacy.[C]invadesonlineconsumerprivacyratherthanprotectit.(D]isdeficientinthatitleavesmanysectorsunshielded.Privacystandardsmadebyindividualstatesareineffectivebecause[A]thestandardsofdifferentstatescontradicteachother.|B|onlinecommunicationisnotrestrictedtoanystate.[C]thesestandardsignorethefederallawonthematter.[D]thesestandardsareonlyapplicabletoregionalwebsites.Theexpression"optoutofsuchdatacollection"(inthelastparagraph)probablymeans[A]pickoutfromsuchdatatheinformationoneneeds.[B]siftthroughsuchdatatocollectoneVsowninformation.|C]evaluatethepurposetorsuchdatacollection.[D]choosenottobeinvolvedinsuchdatacollection.Text4Urbanlifehasalwaysinvolvedabalancingofopportunitiesandrewardsagainstdangersandstress;itsmotivatingforceis,inthebroadestsense,money.Opportunitiestomakemoneymeancompetitionandcompetitionisstressful;itisoftenatitsmostintenseinthelargestcities,whereopportunitiesaregreatest.Thepresenceofhugenumbersofpeopleinevitablyinvolvesmoreconflict,moretraveling,theoverloadingofpublicservicesandexposuretothosedeviantsandcriminalswhoaredrawntotherichpickingsofgreatcities.Crimehasalwaysflourishedintherelativeanonymityofurbanlife,buttoday、'seaseofmovementmakesitscontrolmoredifficultthanever;thereismuchevidencethatitsextenthasadirectrelationshiptothesizeofcommunities.Citydwellersmaybecometrappedintheirhomesbythefearofcrimearoundthem.Asadefenseagainstthesedevelopments,citydwellerstendtousevariousstrategiestotryandreducethepressuresuponthemselves:contractswithotherpeoplearegenerallymadebriefandimpersonal;doorsarekeptlocked;telephonenumbersmaybeex-directory;journeysoutsidethehomeareusuallyhurried,ratherthanasourceofpleasure.Thereareotherstrategies,too,whicharepositivelyharmfultotheindividualfbrexample,reducingawarenessthroughdrugsoralcohol.Furthermore,allthesedefensiveformsofbehaviorareharmfultosocietyingeneral;theycausewidespreadlonelinessanddestroythecommunityVsconcernfbritsmembers.Lackofinformalsocialcontactandindifferencetothemisfortunesofothers,iftheyarenotpersonallyknowntooneself,areamongstthemajorcausesofurbancrime.Innerareasofcitiestendtobeabandonedbythemoresuccessfulandlefttothosewhohavedonebadlyinthecompetitivestruggleorwhobelongtominoritygroups;thesepeoplearethegeographicallytrappedbecausesomucheconomicactivityhasmigratedtothesuburbsandbeyond.Present-dayarchitectureandplanninghaveenormouslyworsenedthehumanproblemsofurbanlife.Oldestablishedneighborhoodshavebeenruthlesslysweptaway,bybothpublicandprivateorganizations,usuallytobereplacedbyhuge,ugly,impersonalstructures.Peoplehavebeenforcedtoleavetheirfamiliarhomes,usuallytoberehousedintowerblockswhicharedrab,inconvenient,andfailtoprovideanysettingfbrhumaninteractionorsupport.Thisdestructionofestablishedsocialstructuresistheworstpossibleapproachtothedifficultiesoflivinginatownorcity.Instead,everyeffortshouldbemadetoconservethehumanscaleoftheenvironment,andtoretainfamiliarlandmarks.Accordingtotheauthor,livinginacitycausesstressbecausetherearesomanypeoplewhoare|A]inneedofhelp.[B]naturallyaggressive.[C]likelytocommitcrime.[D]anxioustosucceed.Theauthorthinksthatcrimeisincreasingincitiesbecause[A]criminalsaredifficulttotrackdowninlargepopulations.|B]peopledonotcommunicatewiththeirneighbors.[C]peoplefeelanonymousthere.[D]thetrappingsofsuccessareattractivetocriminals.Accordingtothepassage,theworstproblemfacingpeoplelivingincitiesis[A]crime.[B]findingsomewheretolive.[C]socialisolation.|D]drugsandalcoholism.Themajorityofpeoplewholiveininnercitiesdosobecausethey[A]dislikehavingtotravelfartowork.|B]don\'tliketheideaoflivinginthesuburbs.[CJhavebeenforcedbycircumstancestodoso.[D]haveturnedagainstsociety.Architecturalchangeshaveaffectedcitylifeby[A]givingtheindividualasayinplanning.[B]dispersinglong-establishedcommunities.[C]forcingpeopletoliveontopofeachother.[DJmakingpeoplemovetothesuburbs.PartBDirections:Youaregoingtoreadatextondevelopingapositiveattitudetowardstudy,followedbyalistofchoices.ChoosethemostsuitablechoicefromthelistA-Ffbreachnumberedsubheading(41-45).Thereisoneextrachoicewhichyoudonotneedtouse.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)Somepeoplewillmightilydisagreewithmeonthenotionthatyoumustlikesomethingtodowell.OK.ThatVsyouropinion,andyou\'reentitledtoit!Butmyexperienceinaclassroomisthatstudentswhohavean"attitude"(anegativedisposition)towardeitherthesubjectortheteacherdonotperformaswellastheyshould.Ihavewatchedthis''attitude"phenomenonfbryears.Infact,itVssoprominentinrequiredcoursesthatyoucannotmissit.TheschooltellsstudentsthattheymusttakeEnglish,andstudentsresentit.ItVshumannaturetorebelwhensomeonesaysyoumustdoit.Incontrast,Ifindthatinelectivecoursesstudentshavemoreofaninterestandtheresultsaredramaticallydifferent.Theyparticipatemoreinclass,readtheassignments,turninhigherqualitymaterials,talktotheteachermore,andgenerallyaremorefun.DonVtthinkthatintelligence(ability)willsubstitutefbragoodattitude,becauseitwillnot.UnderlineNOT.Beingbrightisagiftthatmanypeoplesquanderbecauseofabadattitude.Theworldischockfullofhalf-bakedgeniuses,potentialOlympicathletes,andsuperstartalentsthatnevermadeit.Why?Becauseattitude,notability,willdetermineyourVsuccess.Andthefollowingaresomeeffectivetipsforyoutodevelopapositiveattitude.(41)Thinklikeanadvertiser.Inadvertising,thefirstthingtheadmustdoistotellthecustomershowtheproductorservicewillbenefitthem.Otherwise,itVsnearlyimpossibletosellanything.(42)Lookforlong-termbenefits.Asyoubegintolookforbenefits,bewareofshortsightedness.Studentstendtolookfbrinstantgratification-whatVsinitforme...rightthisverysecondinnaylife.(43)Actlikeababy-sitter.Pretendthatyou\'recounselingayoungerbrotherorsisteraboutaparticularclassandyousenseanegativeattitude.Youwanttotellthemhowimportantsuchacourseisandwhyitshouldbetakenseriously.Whatadvicewouldyougive?(44)RemembertheTortoiseandtheHare.Thisisastorythatyounodoubthaveheardsinceyouwereachild.Thetwo,asyourecall,wereinarace.Thehareshouldhavewonhandsdown,nosweat.Buthetookhistalentforgrantedandunderestimatedacompetitorwithgreatattitude.(45)Avoidmakingnegativecommentsaboutthecourseortheprofessor.Keepyourcommentspositive-theyfosterapositiveattitude.Aphilosopheronceheardamanspeakingpoorlyaboutanothermaninpublic.Thephilosopherstoppedthespeakerandadmonishedhimnottosaysuchdamagingthingsaboutanother.Thespeakeraskedthephilosopherifhewastryingtoprotectthemanwhowassubjectofthenegativecomments."No,"saidthephilosophercalmly,"Iwastryingtoprotectyoufromyourself."Negativecommentsaboutpeoplecanbecomeself-destructive.Remember,attitude,notability,willdetermineyoursuccessincollege.So,developapositiveattitudetowardthecourseyouarelearning,andyouwillsucceed.[A]Theresultsarealwaysthesame:Excuses.*'lwouldhave,couldhave,shouldhave.""Thatdamnedcoachhatesme."VThatinstructordoesnVtlikethewayIdress."Thelistgoeson.YouVvehearditoverandoverbythosewhofailtoreachtheiraltitude..,usuallybecauseoftheirattitude.[B]Attitudebeatsaptitudeeverytime.|C]IdiscoveredthisapproachwhenIwasabout12yearsoldandwasbaby-sittingtorourneighborVskids.OnedayIstartedlecturingthekidsaboutpickinguptheirclothesandputtingtoysaway.AsIdid,Ibegantosoundlikemyownparents,Horrors.WhenIgothome,Iimmediatelycleanedmyownroom.Mymothernearlyfainted.Bygivingsomeoneelsegood,solidadvice,youteachyourself[D]Therefore,findthebenefittoyoubylookingatthesyllabusanddiscoveringtwoorthreeissuesthatyoufindinteresting.Focusonthoseforstarters.Otherbenefitswillfollow.[E]ThiswilldisappointyoubecauseitVsdifficulttoseehowColumbusVrationaleforexplorationin1492hasanydirect,right-nowimpactonyourlife.Ratherthanthismyopicstance,takethelongviewtolearning.Askyourself,"Whatcanhistoryteachme?”"Willunderstandingthewhy\'shelpmeunderstandthewhatX'sV?1'Theanswerisabsolutely...YES.Whatyoulearnincollegehelpsprepareyoutothinkthroughimportantissuesandapplythemtoyourdailylife.|F|Makingandrepeatingcommentsbeginstoprogramyourthinkingforgoodorbad.WhenyoustartdownthisnegativepathitVsprettyhardtogetback.IVveseenstudentsdevelopan"attitude"andthentrytodefenditlongaftereveryoneelsehasseenthatitnolongermakessense.PartCDirections:ReadthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsintoChinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)TheideaofevolutionwasknowntosomeoftheGreekphilosophers.BythetimeofAristotle,speculationhadsuggestedthatmoreperfecttypeshadnotonlyfollowedlessperfectonesbutactuallyhaddevelopedfromthem.Butallthiswasguessing;norealevidencewasforthcoming.When,inmodemtimes,theideaofevolutionwasrevived,itappearedinthewritingsofthephilosophers-Bacon.Descartes,LeibnizandKant.46)HcrbcrSpencerwaspreachingafullevolutionarydoctrineintheyearsjustbeforeDarwinVsbookwaspublished,whilemostnaturalistswouldhavenoneofit.Neverthelessafewbiologistsrancountertotheprevailingview,andpointedtosuchfactsastheessentialunityofstructureinallwarm-bloodedanimals.ThefirstcompletetheorywasthatofLamarck,whothoughtthatmodificationsduetoenvironment,ifconstantandlasting,wouldbeinheritedandproduceanewtype.47)Thoughnoevidencefbrsuchinheritancewasavailable,thetheorygaveaworkinghypothesisfornaturaliststouse,andmanyofthesocialandphilanthropiceffortsofthenineteenthcenturywereframedonthetacitassumptionthatacquiredimprovementswouldbeinherited.ButthemanwhosebookgavebothDarwinandWallacethecluewastheReverendRobertMalthus,sometimecurateofAlburyinSurrey.48)TheEnglishpeoplewereincreasingrapidly,andMalthusarguedthatthehumanracetendstooutrunitsmeansofsubsistenceunlesstheredundantindividualsareeliminated.Thismaynotalwaysbetrue,butDarwinwrites:InOctober1838,1happenedtoreadforamusementMalthusonPopulation,andbeingwellpreparedtoappreciatethestruggleforexistencewhicheverywheregoeson,fromlongcontinuedobservationofthehabitsofanimalsandplants,itatoncestruckmethat,underthesecircumstances,favourablevariationswouldtendtobepreserved,andunfavourableonestobedestroyed.Theresultofthiswouldbetheformationofnewspecies.Herethen1hadatheorybywhichtowork.Thehypothesisofnaturalselectionmaynotbeacompleteexplanation,butitledtoagreaterthingthanitself-anacceptanceofthetheoryoforganicevolution,whichtheyearshavebutconfirmed.Yetatfirstsomenaturalistsjoinedtheopposition.Tothemany,whowereunabletojudgethebiologicalevidence,theeffectofthetheoryofevolutionseemedincredibleaswellasdevastating,toruncountertocommonsenseandtooverwhelmallphilosophicandreligiouslandmarks.Eveneduc