教你如何用制作iebook《佛图风向标》电子期刊

SecondLanguageAcquisitionPreparedBy:Dr.EmmaAliciaGarzaAssistantProfessorTexasA&MUniversity-KingsvilleWhatisSecond

LanguageAcquisition?

Insecondlanguagelearning,languageplaysaninstitutionalandsocialroleinthecommunity.Itfunctionsasarecognizedmeansofcommunicationamongmemberswhospeaksomeotherlanguageastheirnativetongue.Inforeignlanguagelearning,languageplaysnomajorroleinthecommunityandisprimarilylearnedintheclassroom.

Thedistinctionbetweensecondandforeignlanguagelearningiswhatislearnedandhowitislearned.WhatistheStudyofSecondLanguageAcquisition?

Itisthestudyof:howsecondlanguagesarelearned;howlearnerscreateanewlanguagesystemwithlimitedexposuretoasecondlanguage;whymostsecondlanguagelearnersdonotachievethesamedegreeofproficiencyinasecondlanguageastheydointheirnativelanguage;andwhysomelearnersappeartoachievenative-likeproficiencyinmorethanonelanguage.HowDoLearnersAcquireaSecondLanguage?Learnersacquireasecondlanguagebymakinguseofexistingknowledgeofthenativelanguage,generallearningstrategies,oruniversalpropertiesoflanguagetointernalizeknowledgeofthesecondlanguage.Theseprocessesserveasameansbywhichthelearnerconstructsaninterlanguage(atransitionalsystemreflectingthelearner’scurrentL2knowledge).Communicationstrategiesareemployedbythelearnertomakeuseofexistingknowledgetocopewithcommunicationdifficulties.TheLanguageLearnerIndividualdifferencesaffectL2acquisition.Thesemayinclude:(1)therateofdevelopmentand(2)theirultimatelevelofachievement.Learnersdifferwithregardtovariablesrelatingtocognitive,affectiveandsocialaspectsofahumanbeing.Fixedfactorssuchasageandlanguagelearningaptitudearebeyondexternalcontrol.VariablefactorssuchasmotivationareinfluencedbyexternalfactorssuchassocialsettingandbytheactualcourseofL2development.Cognitivestylereferstothewaypeopleperceive,conceptualize,organizeandrecallinformation.Fielddependentlearnersoperateholistically.Theyliketoworkwithothers.Fieldindependentlearnersareanalyticandprefertoworkalone.LearnerStrategiesLearnerstrategiesaredefinedasdeliberatebehaviorsoractionsthatlearnersusetomakelanguagelearningmoresuccessful,self-directedandenjoyable.Cognitivestrategiesrelatenewconceptstopriorknowledge.MetacognitivestrategiesarethosewhichhelpwithorganizingapersonaltimetabletofacilitateaneffectivestudyoftheL2.Socialstrategiesincludelookingforopportunitiestoconversewithnativespeakers.NaturalOrderofStrategiesofSecondLanguageDevelopmentChesterfield&Chesterfield(1985)identifiedanaturalorderofstrategiesinthedevelopmentofasecondlanguage.

1) repetition(imitatingawordorstructure); 2) memorization(recallingsongs,rhymesorsequencesbyrote); 3) formulaicexpressions(wordsorphrasesthatfunctionasunitsi.e.greetings); 4) verbalattentiongetters(languagethatinitiatesinteraction); 5) answeringinunison(respondingwithothers); 6) talkingtoself(engagingininternalmonologue); 7) elaboration(informationbeyondwhatisnecessary); 8) anticipatoryanswers(completinganother’sphraseorstatement); 9) monitoring(self-correctingerrors);10) appealforassistance(askingsomeoneforhelp);11) requestforclarification(askingthespeakertoexplainorrepeat);and12) role-playing(interactingwithanotherbytakingonroles).StrategiesTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition

UniversalistTheorydefineslinguisticuniversalsfromtwoperspectives:Thedata-drivenperspectivewhichlooksatsurfacefeaturesofawide-rangeoflanguagestofindouthowlanguagesvaryandwhatprinciplesunderliethisvariation.Thedata-drivenapproachconsiderssystemexternalfactorsorinputasthebasis.

Thetheory-drivenperspectivewhichlooksatin-depthanalysisofthepropertiesoflanguagetodeterminehighlyabstractprinciplesofgrammar.Systeminternalfactorsarethosefoundincognitiveandlinguisticprocesses.TheoryUniversalistTheory

(Continued)SeveralCharacteristicsofthedata-drivenapproachincludethefollowing:Ithaslanguagetypologywhichdelvesintopatternswhichexistamonglanguagesandhowtheyvaryinhumanlanguages.Languageuniversalsfocusonwhatiscommon.Forexample,subject/verb/object.Implicationaluniversalswhichrefertothepropertiesoflanguagesuchas“alllanguageshavevowels”withoutlookingatanyotherproperties.SeveralCharacteristicsofthetheory-drivenapproachincludethefollowing:Languageisacquiredthroughinnateness.Certainprinciplesofthehumanmindarebiologicallydetermined.Therearesetsofprinciplesandconditionswhereknowledgeoflanguagedevelops.Universalgrammarisseenaspartofthebrain.Theory

TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)BehavioristTheorydominatedbothpsychologyandlinguisticsinthe1950’s.Thistheorysuggeststhatexternalstimuli(extrinsic)canelicitaninternalresponsewhichinturncanelicitaninternalstimuli(intrinsic)thatleadtoexternalresponses.ThelearningprocesshasbeendescribedbyS-R-Rtheoristsasaprocessformingstimulus-response-rewardchains.Thesechainscomeaboutbecauseofthenatureoftheenvironmentandthenatureofthelearner.Theenvironmentprovidesthestimuliandthelearnerprovidestheresponses.Comprehensionorproductionofcertainaspectsoflanguageandtheenvironmentprovidethereward.Theenvironmentplaysamajorroleintheexerciseofthelearners’abilitiessinceitprovidesthestimulithatcanshaperesponsesselectivelyrewardingsomeresponsesandnotothers.TheoryBehavioristTheory(Continued)Whenthelearnerlearnsalanguage,thislearningincludesasetofstimulus-response-reward(S-R-R)chains.Imitationprovidesthelearnerwitharepertoireofappropriate,productiveresponses.Thelearnerlearnstoimitateorapproximatetheproductiveresponsesprovidedbytheenvironment.Thecharacteristicsofhumanandnon-humanlearnersincludetheabilityto:respondtostimuliinacertainway;intuitivelyevaluatetherewardpotentialofresponses;extracttheimportantparametersthatmadeupthestimulusresponse(positiverewardchains);andgeneralizetheseparameterstosimilarsituationstoformclassesofS-R-Rchains.TheoryTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)NativistTheoryviewslanguageacquisitionasinnatelydetermined.Theoristsbelievethathumanbeingsarebornwithabuilt-indeviceofsomekindthatpredisposesthemtoacquirelanguage.Thispredispositionisasystematicperceptionoflanguagearoundus,resultingintheconstructionofaninternalizedsystemoflanguage.Nativistsareontheoppositeendofthetheoreticalcontinuumandusemoreofarationalistapproachinexplainingthemysteryoflanguageacquisition.Chomsky(1965)claimedtheexistenceofinnatepropertiesoflanguagethatexplainachild’’smasteryofhis/hernativelanguageinashorttimedespitethehighlyabstractnatureoftherulesoflanguage.Thisinnateknowledge,accordingtoChomsky,isembodiedina“littleblackbox”ofsortscalledaLanguageAcquisitionDevice(LAD).TheoryNativistTheory(Continued)McNeill(1966)describedtheLADasconsistingoffourinnatelinguisticproperties:theabilitytodistinguishspeechsoundsfromothersoundsintheenvironment;theabilitytoorganizelinguisticeventsintovariousclassesthatcanberefinedlater;knowledgethatonlyacertainkindoflinguisticsystemispossibleandthatotherkindsarenot;andtheabilitytoengageinconstantevaluationofthedevelopinglinguisticsysteminordertoconstructthesimplestpossiblesystemoutofthelinguisticdatathatareencountered.Nativistshavecontributedtothediscoveriesofhowthesystemofchildlanguageworks.TheoristssuchasChomsky,McNeill,andothershelpedusunderstandthatachild’slanguage,atanygivenpoint,isalegitimatesysteminitsownright.TheoryTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)CognitivistTheoryviewshumanbeingsashavingtheinnatecapacitytodeveloplogicalthinking.ThisschoolofthoughtwasinfluencedbyJeanPiaget’’sworkwherehesuggeststhatlogicalthinkingistheunderlyingfactorforbothlinguisticandnon-linguisticdevelopment.Theprocessofassociationhasbeenusedtodescribethemeansbywhichthechildlearnstorelatewhatissaidtoparticularobjectsoreventsintheenvironment.Thebridgebywhichcertainassociationsaremadeismeaning.Theextentandaccuracyoftheassociationsmadearesaidtochangeintimeasthechildmatures.Cognitivistssaythattheconditionsforlearninglanguagearethesameconditionsthatarenecessaryforanykindoflearning.Theenvironmentprovidesthematerialthatthechildcanworkon.Cognitivistsviewtheroleoffeedbackinthelearningprocessasimportantforaffectivereasons,butnon-influentialintermsofmodifyingoralteringthesequenceofdevelopment.TheoryCognitivistTheory(Continued)LanguageLearningasaCognitiveProcessLearningalanguageinvolvesinternalrepresentationsthatregulateandguideperformance.Automaticprocessingactivatescertainnodesinmemorywhenappropriateinputispresent.Activationisalearnedresponse.Memoryisalargecollectionofnodes.Controlledprocessingisnotalearnedresponse.Itisatemporaryactivationofnodesinasequence.Skillsarelearnedandroutinizedonlyaftertheearlieruseofcontrolledprocesseshavebeenused.Learnerstrategiescontainbothdeclarativeknowledgei.e.knowingthe‘‘what’’ofthelanguage-internalizedrulesandmemorizedchunksoflanguage,andproceduralknowledgei.e.knowthe‘‘how’’ofthelanguagesystemtoemploystrategies.TheoryTheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition(Continued)SocialInteractionistTheorysupportstheviewthatthedevelopmentoflanguagecomesfromtheearlyinteractionsbetweeninfantsandcaregivers.Socialinteractionistsstress:theimportanceofachild’’sinteractionswithparentsandothercaregivers;theimportanceof““motherese””;contributionsofcontextandworldknowledge;andtheimportanceofgoalsGlew(1998)claimsthatlearnershavetobepushedintheirnegotiationofmeaningtoproducecomprehensibleoutput.Theclassroomcontextneedstoprovideadequateopportunitiesfortargetlanguageusetoallowlearnerstodevelopcompetenceinthetargetlanguage.TheorySocialInteractionistTheory(Continued)Comprehensibleoutputprovidesopportunitiesforcontextualized,meaningfuluseoflanguage.Socialinteractionistsbelievethat:Humanlanguageemergedfromthesocialrolethatlanguageplaysinhumaninteraction;Theenvironmentplaysakeyroleinlanguagedevelopment;Adultsinthechild’slinguisticenvironmentareviewedasinstrumentalinlanguageacquisition.Socialinteractionsarethekeyelementinlanguageprocessingandinputfromsocialinteractionsprovidesamodelfornegotiationopportunities.TheoryKrashen’sFiveHypothesesforSecondLanguageAcquisitionTheAcquisition-LearningHypothesisclaimsthatwehavetwoindependentwaysofdevelopinglanguageability:LanguageAcquisitionisasubconsciousprocess.Itoccursverynaturallyinanon-threateningenvironment.Theresearchstronglysupportstheviewthatbothchildrenandadultscansubconsciouslyacquirelanguages.LanguageLearningiswhatoccursatschoolinanacademicsetting.Itisaconsciousprocess.Whenwetalkaboutrulesandgrammaroflanguage,weareusuallytalkingaboutlearning.TheNaturalOrderHypothesisclaimsthatweacquirepartsofalanguageinapredictableorder.Somegrammaticalitemstendtocomeearlierintheacquisitionthanothers.Forexample,the––ingprogressiveisacquiredfairlyearlyinfirstlanguageacquisition,whilethirdpersonsingular––sisacquiredlater.12Krashen’sFiveHypotheses(Continued)TheMonitorHypothesisattemptstoexplainhowacquisitionandlearningareused.Languageisnormallyproducedusingouracquiredlinguisticcompetence.Consciouslearninghasonlyonefunction…asthe““Monitor”or““Editor.””Afterweproducesomelanguageusingtheacquiredsystem,wesometimesinspectitanduseourlearnedsystemtocorrecterrors.Thiscanhappeninternallybeforeweactuallyspeakorwrite,orasaself-correctionafterweproducetheutteranceorwrittentext.ComprehensibleInputHypothesiscontendsthatmorecomprehensibleinputresultsinmoreacquisition.TheAffectiveFilterHypothesisclaimsthataffectivevariablesdonotimpactlanguageacquisitiondirectly,butcanpreventinputfromreachingwhatChomskycalledtheLanguageAcquisitionDevice.TheLADisthepartofthebrainthatisresponsibleforlanguageacquisition.543Cummin’’sSecondLanguageFrameworkCumminsmakesadistinctionbetweensociallanguageandacademiclanguage.1.Sociallanguagereferstotheeverydayconversationallanguagewhichissupportedbytheuseofillustrations,realia,demonstrations,etc.(ContextEmbedded).Studiesshowthatlanguagelearnersacquiresociallanguageinapproximatelytwoyears.Sociallanguagedealswiththehere-and-nowlanguage,thereforesecondlanguagelearnerstendtoacquireitfaster.2.Academiclanguageisthelanguageofschooltaskswhichismoreabstractanddecontextualized(ContextReduced).SomesecondlanguagelearnerswhodevelopfluentspokenEnglishhavedifficultiesinreadingandwritingbecausetheymaybeatdifferentlevelsofproficiencywhiletheyaremovingfromsociallanguage(BICS)toacademiclanguage(CALP).Ittakesbetweenfivetosevenyearsforsecondlanguagelearnerstoacquireacademiclanguage.Context-EmbeddedCognitivelyUndemandingSampleTasksContext-Embedded/CognitivelyUndemandingtasksaresupportedbytheuseofpictures,illustrations,demonstrations,connectionswithlifeexperiences,etc.Languagelearningisnon-threateningandlearnersareabletodependonenvironmentalcuesforassistance.Somesampletasksinclude:developingsurvivalvocabulary;followingdemonstrateddirections;playingsimplegames;engaginginface-to-faceinteractions;andparticipatinginart,musicandphysicaleducationactivities.Context-EmbeddedCognitivelyDemandingSampleTasksContext-Embedded/CognitivelyDemandingtasksarethoseactivitiesthatprovidesomeenvironmentalcues,butaremorecognitivelydemanding.Languagelearnersareexposedtomorecomplextasksthatincludesomecontext-embeddedcues.Examplesofthesetasksinclude:participatinginhands-onscienceandmathematicsactivities;makingmaps,models,charts,andgraphs;solvingmathcomputationalproblems;makingbrieforalpresentations;understandingacademicpresentationsthroughtheuseofvisuals,demonstrations,activeparticipation,realia,etc.;andwritingacademicreportswiththeaidofoutlines,structures,etc.Context-ReducedCognitivelyUndemandingSampleTasksContext-Reduced/CognitivelyUndemandingtasksarethoseactivitiesthataresimpletocarryoutbutdonotcontainanyenvironmentalcuestoassistthelanguagelearner.Somesampletasksinclude:engagingintelephoneconversations;readingforpersonalpurposes;andwritingforpersonalpurposes:notes,lists,sketches,etc.Context-ReducedCognitivelyDemandingSampleTasksContext-Reduced/CognitivelyDemandingtasksarethosethatrequiremoreacademicallydemandinglanguage,aremoreabstractandaredecontextualized.Someexamplesofthesetasksinclude:understandingacademicpresentationswithoutvisualsordemonstrations(lectures);makingformaloralpresentations;solvingmathwordproblemswithoutillustrations;writingcompositions,essays,andresearchreportsincontentareas;readingforinformationincontentareas;andtakingstandardizedachievementtests.ComponentsofCommunicativeCompetenceCanaleandSwain(1983)identifiedfourcomponentsofcommunicativecompetence:1)grammaticalcompetence2)sociolinguisticcompetence3)discoursecompetence4)strategiccompetenceGrammaticalcompetencemeansunderstandingtheskillsandknowledgenecessarytospeakandwriteaccurately.Grammaticalcompetenceincludes:1)vocabulary2)wordformation3)meaning4)sentenceformation5)pronunciation6)spellingSociolinguisticcompetenceinvolvesknowinghowtoproduceandunderstandthelanguageindifferentsociolinguisticcontexts,takingintoconsiderationsuchfactorsas:1)thestatusoftheparticipants2)thepurposeoftheinteraction;and3)thenormsorconventionsoftheinteraction.ComponentsofCommunicativeCompetence(Continued)Discoursecompetenceinvolvestheabilitytocombineandconnectutterances(spoken)andsentences(written)intoameaningfulwhole.Discourserangesfromasimplespokenconversationtolongwrittentexts.Strategiccompetenceinvolvesthemanipulationoflanguageinordertomeetcommunicativegoals.Itinvolvesbothverbalandnon-verbalbehaviors.Speakersemploythiscompetencefortwomainreasons:1)tocompensateforbreakdownsincommunicationsuchaswhenthespeakerforgetsordoesnotknowatermandisforcedtoparaphraseorgesturetogettheideaacross;and2)toenhancetheeffectivenessofcommunicationsuchaswhenaspeakerraisesorlowersthevoiceforeffect.CompetenceVs.PerformanceAccordingtoChomsky(1965),competenceconsistsofmentalrepresentationsoflinguisticrulesthatconstitutethespeaker-hearer’’sinternalgrammar.Thisinternalgrammarisimplicitratherthanexplicit.Itisevidentintheintuitions,whichthespeaker-hearerhasaboutthegrammaticalityofsentences.Performanceconsistsoftheuseofthisgrammarinthecomprehensionandproductionofthelanguage.Communicativecompetenceisthataspectofthelanguageuser’’scompetencethatenablesthemtoconveyandinterpretmessagesandtonegotiatemeaningsinterpersonallywithinspecificcontexts.Languageisaformofcommunicationthatoccursinsocialinteraction.Itisusedforapurposesuchaspersuading,commanding,andestablishingsocialrelationships.Nolongeristhefocusonspecificknowledgeofgrammaticalform.Instead,thecompetentspeakerisrecognizedasonewhoknowswhen,where,andhowtouselanguageappropriately.LanguageLearningBehaviorist’sviewsoflanguagelearningandoflanguageteachingwerepre-dominantinthetwodecadesfollowingthesecondworldwar.TheseviewsdrewongeneraltheoriesoflearningpropoundedbypsychologistssuchasWatson(1924),Thorndike(1932),andSkinner(1957).Dakin(1973)identifiesthreegeneralprinciplesoflanguagelearningderivedfromthesetheories.Accordingtothelawofexercise,languagelearningispromotedwhenthelearnermakesactiveandrepeatedresponsestostimuli.Thelawofeffectemphasizestheimportanceofreinforcingthelearners’responsesandcorrectingnon-target-likeones.Theprincipleofshapingclaimsthatlearningwillproceedmostsmoothlyandrapidlyifcomplexbehaviorsarebrokendownintotheircomponentpartsandlearnedbit-by-bit.LanguageLearning

(Continued)Underlyingtheseprincipleswastheassumptionthatlanguagelearning,likeanyotherkindoflearning,tooktheformofhabitformation,“ahabitconsistingofanautomaticresponseelicitedbyagivenstimulus.Learningwasseentotakeplaceinductivelythroughanalogyratherthananalysis.Accordingtobehavioristtheories,themainimpedimenttolearningwasinterferencefrompriorknowledge.Proactiveinhibitionoccurredwhenoldhabitsgotinthewayofattemptstolearnnewones.Insuchcases,theoldhabitshadtobeunlearnedsothattheycouldbereplacedbythenewones.ThenotionofunlearningmadelittlesenseaslearnersdidnotneedtoforgettheirL1inordertoacquireanL2.Forthisreason,behavioristtheoriesofL2learningemphasizedtheideaof““difficulty.””ThisisdefinedastheamountofeffortrequiredtolearnanL2pattern.Thedegreeofdifficultywasbelievedtodependprimarilyintheextenttowhichthetargetlanguagepatternwassimilartoordifferentfromanativelanguagepattern.InputandInteractionL2acquisitioncanonlytakeplacewhenthelearnerhasaccesstoinputinthesecondlanguage.Thisinputmaycomeinwrittenorspokenform.Spokeninputoccursinface-to-faceinteractions.Non-reciprocaldiscourseincludeslisteningtotheradioorwatchingafilm.Behavioristsclaimthatpresentinglearnerswithinputintherightdosesandthenreinforcingtheirattemptstopracticethemcancontroltheprocessofacquisition.Chomskypointedoutthatinmanycasestherewasaverypoormatchbetweenthekindoflanguagefoundintheinputthatlearnersreceivedandthekindoflanguagetheythemselvesproduced.Comprehensibleinput(Krashen’s,1985InputHypothesis)proposedthatlearnersacquiremorphologicalfeaturesinanaturalorderasaresultofcomprehendinginputaddressedtothem.Long(1981a)arguedthatinputwhichismadecomprehensiblebymeansoftheconversationaladjustmentsthatoccurwhenthereisacomprehensionproblemisespeciallyimportantforacquisition.Swain(1985)proposedthecomprehensibleoutputhypothesiswhichstatesthatlearnersneedopportunitiesfor““pushedoutput”inspeechorwritingthatmakesdemandsonthemforcorrectandappropriateuseoftheL2.TheRoleoftheNativeLanguageinSecondLanguageAcquisitionTheroleofnativelanguageinsecondlanguageacquisitionhascometobeknownas“languagetransfer.”Ithasbeenassumedthatinasecondlanguagelearningsituationlearnersrelyextensivelyontheirnativelanguage.AccordingtoLado(1957)individualstendtotransferformsandmeanings,thedistributionoftheformsandmeaningsoftheirnativelanguageandculturetotheforeignlanguageandculture.Thistransferisproductivewhenthelearnerattemptstospeakthelanguage.Thistransferisreceptivewhenthelearnerattemptstograspandunderstandthelanguageandcultureaspracticedbynativespeakers.Lado’’sworkandmuchoftheworkofthattime(1950’s)wasbasedontheneedtoproducepedagogicallyrelevantmaterials.Acontrastiveanalysisofthenativelanguageandthetargetlanguagewasconductedinordertodeterminesimilaritiesanddifferencesinthelanguages.LanguageTransferFrameworkfor

ExplainingL1TransferTheL1systemisusedforbothcomprehensionandproduction.Theinterlanguagesystemisalsousedincomprehendingandreceivingmessages.TheL1systemisusedinhypothesisconstructionresponsibleforinterlanguagedevelopment.Comprehensibleinputservesasamajorsourceofinformationforhypothesisconstruction.L2outputmaybeusedforhypothesisconstruction.LanguageTransferTowardaTheoryofFirstLanguageTransferAnimportantdistinctionnotalwaysmadeindiscussionsoftransferisbetweentransferinL2communicationandtransferinL2learning.TransferincommunicationinvolvestheuseoftheL1eithertoreceiveincomingmessages(reception)ortoprocessoutput(production).TransferinlearningoccurswhenthelearnerusestheL1inanattempttodevelophypothesesaboutL2rules.Thereareseveralpossibilitiesfortransfer:1)itisprimarilyacharacteristicofcommunication2)itisprimarilyafeatureoflearning3)bothcommunicationandlearningtransferaresignificantandinterrelatedaspectsofL2acquisition.TheoryLanguageTransferWherethetwolanguageswereidentical,learningcouldtakeplacethroughpositivetransfertothenative-languagepattern.Wherethetwolanguagesweredifferent,learningdifficultyaroseanderrorsoccurredresultingfromnegativetransfer.Chomsky(1959)setinmotionare-evaluationofmanyofthebehavioristsclaims.Thisre-evaluationincludedareasuchas:thedangersofextrapolatingfromlaboratorystudiesofanimalbehaviortothelanguagebehaviorofhumanswerepointedout;thetermsstimulusandresponsewereexposedasvacuouswherelanguagebehaviorwasconcerned;analogycouldnotaccountforthelanguageuser’sabilitytogeneratetotallynovelutterances;andstudiesofchildrenacquiringtheirL1showedthatparentsrarelycorrectedtheirchildren’slinguisticerrors,thuscastingdoubtontheimportanceofreinforcementinlanguagelearning.AllthisledtothereconsiderationoftheroleofL1inL2learning.LanguageTransferTheNatureofthe

InterlanguageContinuumCognitivetheoriesofinterlanguageclaimthatwiththeassistanceoflearningstrategies,learnersbuildmentalgrammarsofthesecondlanguage.Learnersdrawontherulestheyhaveconstructedtointerpretandproduceutterances.Learner’sutterancesareonlyerroneouswithreferencetothetargetlanguagenorms,nottothenormsoftheirowngrammars.Theinterlanguagecontinuumconsistsofaseriesofoverlappinggrammars.Eachsharesomeruleswiththepreviouslyconstructedgrammar,butalsocontainssomeneworrevisedrules.Arulehasthestatusofahypothesis.Selinker’’sInterlanguageTheorySelinker’’sInterlanguageTheorymaintainstheseparatenessofasecondlanguagelearner’’ssystemandgivesthesystemastructurallyintermediatestatusbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguages.AccordingtoSelinker,secondlanguagelearnersareproducingtheirownself-containedlinguisticsystem.Thesystemisnotanativelanguageortargetlanguagesystem,ratheritfallsbetweenthetwo.StagesofInterlanguageDevelopmentinclude:1)randomerrors(presystematic);2)experimentationandinaccurateguessing;3)emergent-growinginconsistencyinlinguisticproduction;4)backsliding-appearstohavegraspedbutlaterregressedandunabletocorrecterrors;5)systematicstage-abilitytocorrecterrorsontheirown;rulesmaynotbewell-formedbutdisplaymoreinternalself-consistency;6)stabilization-fewerrorsaremade,havemasteredthesystemtothepointoffluency;and7)intralingual-inconsistencieswithinthetargetlanguage;Globalerrors-affectmeaning;localerrors-closesimilaritiesinwordform(i.e.spelling).InterlanguageContinuumInterlanguageStagesL1L2______/____/______/____/_______/_____/___/_____/_____/______BasilangMesolangAcrolangIdentificationofLearnerErrorsAnerrorcanbedefinedasadeviationfromthenormsofthetargetlanguagealthoughquestionsareraisedastowhichvarietyofthetargetlanguageshouldserveasthenorm.Thegeneralpracticewhereclassroomlearnersareconcernedistoselectthestandardwrittendialectasanorm.Thedistinctionbetweenerrorsandmistakesisaconcerninthistypeofresearch.Errorstakeplacewhenthedeviationarisesasaresultoflackofknowledge.Mistakesoccurwhenlearnersfailtoperformtheircompetence.Overterrorsaredeviationsinformi.e.Irunnedalltheway.Coverterrorsoccurinutterancesthataresuperficiallywell-formedbutwhichdonotmeanwhatthelearnerintendedthemtomeani.e.Itwasstopped.Whatdoesitreferto?Shouldtheanalysisoferrorsexamineonlydeviationsincorrectnessoralsodeviationsinappropriateness?Correctnesserrorsinvolverulesoflanguageusei.e.learnerinvitesastrangerbysayingIwantyoutocometothecinemawithme.Thecodewasusedcorrectlyitwasnotusedappropriately.Therearethreetypesofinterpretationoferrors:1)normal-canassignameaningtoanutterancebasedontherulesofthetargetlanguage;2)authoritative-involvesaskingthelearnertosaywhattheutterancemeansinordertomakeanauthoritativereconstruction;and3)plausible-canbeobtainedbyreferringtothecontextinwhichtheutterancewasproducedorbytranslatingthesentenceliterallyintothelearner’’sL1.ErrorIdentificationLearnerErrorsErrorAnalysisisusedforexaminingerrorsasawayofinvestigatinglearningprocesses.MuchoftheearlyworkonlearnererrorsfocusedontheextenttowhichL2acquisitionwastheresultofL1transferorcreativeconstruction(constructionofuniquerulessimilartothosewhichchildrenforminthecourseofacquiringthenativelanguage).ThepresenceoferrorsthatmirroredL1structureswastakenasevidenceoftransfer(interlingual),whilethoseerrorssimilartothoseobservedinL1acquisitionwereindicativeofcreativeconstruction(intralingual).ThestudyoflearnererrorsshowedthatalthoughmanyerrorswerecausedbytransferringL1habits,manymorewerenot.Itwasfoundthatlearnerswentthroughstagesof