英美历史文化概况教学课件British History and Cultures

BritishHistoryandCulturesContentsChapter1

Geography,ClimateandPeopleChapter2

History

Chapter3

PoliticalSystemChapter4

LegalSystemLawsandRulesChapter5

EconomyandWelfare

Chapter6

EducationandMedia

Chapter7

Literature

Chapter8

ReligionandBelief

Chapter9

TraditionsandCustoms

Chapter10

MajorCitiesandScenicSpots

Chapter1Geography,ClimateandPeople

Section1Geography1.GeographicalFeatures

TheUnitedKingdomoccupiesthemajorpartoftheBritishIslesarchipelagoandincludestheislandofGreatBritain,thenorth-easternoftheislandofIrelandandsomesmallersurroundingislands.ScotlandaccountsforjustunderathirdofthetotalareaoftheUKandincludingnearlyeighthundredislands.ScotlandisdistinguishedbytheHighlandBoundaryFaul.WalesaccountsforlessthanatenthofthetotalareaoftheUKandismostlymountainous.ThemainpopulationandindustrialareasareinSouthWales.Italsohasover1

200kmofcoastlineandthereareseveralislandsofftheWelshmainland.NorthernIrelandaccountsforjust14

160squarekilometersandismostlyhilly.TheUnitedKingdomliesbetweenlatitudes49°to61°N,andlongitudes9°Wto2°E.EnglandaccountsforjustoverhalfofthetotalareaoftheUK.TheUnitedKingdomhassovereigntyoverseventeenterritorieswhichdonotformpartoftheUnitedKingdomitself:14BritishOverseasTerritoriesandthreeCrownDependencies.TheyaredistinctfromtheCommonwealthofNations.2.RiversandMountainsThemainriversinGreatBritainrunfromnorthtosouth,keepingwelltothewesttothebasinoftheRiverSevern.WestwardflowingstreamsreachtheAtlanticinrelativelyshortdistances.Theriversflowingeastarelonger,severalcoalescingintowideestuaries.Tothesouth,anothergroupofriversentertheWash.ThebigdrainagecomplexoftheThamesdominatesthesouthandtheeastofEngland.TheriversflowingintotheEnglishChannelaremainlyshort.ThechiefmountainrangesarethePenniesinthemiddle,theCambriansinthewestandtheGrampiansintheNorthofGreatBritain.Besides,therearesomesmallmountains.BenNevisisthehighestmountainintheUK.ScafellPikeisthehighestmountaininEnglandandSnowdonisthehighestinWales,butthesecondhighestmountainintheUkisBenMacdhuiinCairngormMountainsoftheGrampians,Scotland.Notes1.TheEnglishChannel,oftenreferredtosimplyasthechannel,isanarmoftheAtlanticOceanthatseparatesGreatBritainfromnorthernFrance,andjoinstheNorthSeatotheAtlantic.Itisabout560km(350mi)longandvariesinwidthfrom240km(150mi)atitswidest,toonly34km(21mi)intheStraitofDover.ItisthesmallestoftheshallowseasaroundthecontinentalshelfofEurope,coveringanareaofsome75

000km2(29

000sqmi).2.TheRepublicofIreland,describedasIreland,isastateinEuropeoccupyingapproximatelyfive-sixthsoftheislandofIreland,whichwaspartitionedin1921.ItsharesitsonlylandborderwithNorthernIreland,apartoftheUnitedKingdomonthenorth-eastoftheisland.ThestateisotherwisesurroundedbytheAtlanticOcean,withtheCelticSeatothesouth,StGeorge’sChanneltothesoutheast,theIrishSeatotheeast.3.TheChannelTunnel,isa50.5-kilometreundersearailtunnellinkingFolkestone,KentinEnglandwithCoquelles,Pas-de-CalaisnearCalaisinnorthernFrancebeneaththeEnglishChannelattheStraitofDover.Atitslowestpoint,itis75metersdeep.At37.9kilometers,theChannelTunnelpossessesthelongestunderseaportionofanytunnelintheworld,althoughtheSeikanTunnelinJapanisbothlongeroverallat53.85kilometers,anddeeperat240metersbelowsealevel.4.TheLakeDistrict,alsocommonlyknownasTheLakesorLakeland,isamountainousregioninNorthWestEngland.Apopularholidaydestination,itisfamousforitslakesanditsmountains(orfells),anditsassociationswiththeearly19thcenturypoetryandwritingsofWilliamWordsworthandtheLakePoets.Thecentral,andmostvisited,partoftheareaiscalledtheLakeDistrictNationalParkwhichwasdesignatedasaNationalParkin1951.ItisthelargestofthirteenNationalParksinEnglandandWales,andsecondlargestintheUK(aftertheCairngorms).5.TheRiverThamesisamajorriverflowingthroughsouthernEngland.WhileitisbestknownbecauseitslowerreachesflowthroughcentralLondon,theriverflowsalongsideseveralothertownsandcities,includingOxford,Reading,Henley-on-Thames,Windsor,KingstonuponThamesandRichmond.6.TheCommonwealthofNations,normallyreferredtoastheCommonwealthandformerlyknownastheBritishCommonwealth,isanintergovernmentalorganizationoffifty-fourindependentmemberstates.Allbuttwo(MozambiqueandRwanda)ofthesecountrieswereformerlypartoftheBritishEmpire,outofwhichitdeveloped.ThememberstatescooperatewithinaframeworkofcommonvaluesandgoalsasoutlinedintheSingaporeDeclaration.Theseincludethepromotionofdemocracy,humanrights,goodgovernance,theruleoflaw,individualliberty,egalitarianism,freetrade,multilateralism,andworldpeace.TheCommonwealthisnotapoliticalunion,butanintergovernmentalorganizationthroughwhichcountrieswithdiversesocial,political,andeconomicbackgroundsareregardedasequalinstatus.Section2ClimateSeveralboundaryconditionsinBritainallowconvergencebetweenmoistmaritimeairanddrycontinentalair.Thelargetemperaturevariationcreatesinstabilityandthisisamajorfactorthatinfluencestheoftenunsettledweather.RegionalclimatesintheUnitedKingdomareinfluencedbytheAtlanticOceanandlatitude.Differentregionsaremoresusceptiblethanotherswhendifferentairmassesaffectthecountry.SpringSpringistheperiodfromMarchtoMay.Itisgenerallyacalm,coolanddryseason.However,asthesunriseshigherinthesky,temperaturescanriserelativelyhigh.Thereisafairchanceofsnowearlierintheseasonwhentemperaturesarecolder.Meantemperaturesinspringaremarkedlyinfluencedbylatitude.

SummerSummerlastsfromJunetoSeptemberandisthehottestseason.Summercanoftenbeadryseason,butrainfalltotalscanhaveawidelocalvariationduetolocalizedthunderstorms.Climaticdifferencesatthistimeofyeararemoreinfluencedbylatitudeandtemperaturesarehighestinsouthernandcentralareasandlowestinthenorth.AutumnAutumnintheUnitedKingdomlastsfromOctobertoNovember.Theseasonisnotoriousforbeingunsettled.Atlanticdepressionsduringthistimecanbecomeintenseandsustainedwindsofhurricaneforcecanberecorded.However,theUnitedKingdomoftenexperiencesan“IndianSummer〞.CoastalareasinthesouthernhalfofEnglandhaveonaveragethewarmestautumns.WinterWinterintheUKisdefinedaslastingfromDecembertoFebruary.Theseasonisgenerallycool,wetandwindy.Precipitationisplentifulthroughouttheseason.Foramajorityofthelandmasssnowispossiblebutnotfrequent,apartfromthehigheraltitudes.Towardsthelaterpartoftheseasontheweatherusuallystabilizeswithlesswind,lessprecipitationandlowertemperatures.Duringperiodsoflightwindsandhighpressurefrostandfogcanbecomeaproblem.MeanwintertemperaturesintheUKaremostinfluencedbyproximitytothesea.Notes1.TheAtlanticOceanisthesecond-largestoftheworld’soceanicdivisions.Withatotalareaofabout106

400

000squarekilometers(41

100

000sqmi),itcoversapproximatelytwentypercentoftheEarth’ssurfaceandabouttwenty-sixpercentofitswatersurfacearea.ThefirstpartofitsnamereferstoAtlasofGreekmythology,makingtheAtlanticthe“SeaofAtlas〞.2.TheAzoresHigh,alsoknownasNorthAtlantic(Subtropical)High/Anticyclone,theBermuda-AzoresHighortheBermudaHigh/AnticycloneintheUnitedStates,isalargesubtropicalsemi-permanentcentreofhighatmosphericpressurefoundneartheAzoresintheAtlanticOcean,attheHorselatitudes.ItformsonepoleoftheNorthAtlanticoscillation,theotherbeingtheIcelandicLow.ThesysteminfluencestheweatherandclimaticpatternsofvastareasofNorthAfricaandEurope.ThearidityoftheSaharaDesertandMediterraneanBasinisduetothesubsidenceofairinthesystem.3.TheGreatStormof1987occurredonthenightof15/16October1987,whenanunusuallystrongweathersystemcausedwindstohitmuchofsouthernEnglandandnorthernFrance.ItwastheworststormtohitEnglandsincetheGreatStormof1703(284yearsearlier)andwasresponsibleforthedeathsofatleast22peopleinEnglandandFrancecombined(18inEngland,atleastfourinFrance).4.AnIndiansummerisameteorologicalphenomenonthatoccursintheautumn.Itreferstoaperiodofconsiderablyabovenormaltemperatures,accompaniedbydryandhazyconditions,aftertherehasbeenakillingfrost.5.TheScottishHighlandsisahistoricregionofScotland.ItwasculturallydistinguishablefromtheScottishLowlandsfromthelaterMiddleAgesintothemodernperiod,whenEnglishreplacedScottishGaelicthroughoutmostoftheLowlands.ThetermisalsousedfortheareanorthandwestoftheHighlandBoundaryFault,althoughtheexactboundariesarenotclearlydefined,particularlytotheeast.TheGreatGlendividestheGrampianMountainstothesoutheastfromtheNorthwestHighlands.6.ThePenninesarealow-risingmountainrange,separatingtheNorthWestofEnglandfromYorkshireandtheNorthEast.Oftendescribedasthe“backboneofEngland〞,theyarearoundthenorthernandeasternedgesofGreaterManchester,throughtheYorkshireDalespasttheCumbrianFellstotheCheviotHillsontheAnglo-Scottishborder.NorthoftheAireGap,thePenninesgiveoutawesternspurintoLancashire,theForestofBowland,andsouthofthegapisasimilarspur,theRossendaleFellsandtheWestPennineMoors.7.Ahardinesszoneisageographicallydefinedareainwhichaspecificcategoryofplantlifeiscapableofgrowing,asdefinedbyclimaticconditions,includingitsabilitytowithstandtheminimumtemperaturesofthezone.Forexample,aplantthatisdescribedas“hardytozone10〞meansthattheplantcanwithstandaminimumtemperatureof1°C.Amoreresilientplantthatis“hardytozone9〞cantolerateaminimumtemperatureof7°C.FirstdevelopedfortheUnitedStatesbytheDepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),theuseofthezoneshasbeenadoptedbyothernations.Section3PeopleBritainhasapopulationofover60million.Itsoverallpopulationdensityisoneofthehighestintheworld.ThemajorityofthepopulationaredescendantsoftheAnglo-Saxons..MostpeopleinWalesandScotlandaredescendantsoftheCelticpeople.TheIrishpeoplewerealsoofCelticorigin.BritainalsohasaconsiderablenumberofItalians,Greeks,Australians,andNewZealanderswhohavesettledinthecountryaspermanentresidents.Inaddition,thereisalargenumberofimmigrantsfromAfricaandAsia.AlltheseimmigrantshavemadeBritainoneofthemostculturallydiversecountriesinEurope.SupplementaryReadingRelevantKnowledgeoftheUnitedKingdomCapitals:England&U.K.→LondonWales→CardiffScotland→EdinburghNorthernIreland→BelfastCities:BirminghamisthesecondlargestcityinEnglandandiswellknownasitsautomobiles,electricalequipment,electronics,munitionsandmanyothermetalproducts.ManchesterbecameonethecentersoftextileindustriesduringtheIndustrialRevolutionandhasbeenknownasametropolitancounty.LiverpoolisthesecondlargestseaportinBritain.Glasgowisalargecityandeconomiccenter.AnditisthethirdlargestcityintheUnitedKingdom.BirminghamLiverpoolGlasgowManchesterOthers:River:Britain→ longest:SevernRiver(338km)2ndlongest&mostimportant:ThamesRiver(336km)Scotland→mostimportant:RiverClydeMountain:Britain→ highest:BenNevis(1343m)Wales→highest:Snowdonia(1085m)Lake:Britain→largest:LoughNeagh(396m2)inNorthernIrelandSevernRiverThamesRiverChapter2History

Section1TheOriginandHistoryoftheUK1.PrehistoryEnglandintheLateBronzeAgewaspartofamaritimetrading-networkedculture.DuringtheIronAge,Celticculturearrived.TheRomansinvadedBritainin43AD,subsequentlyconqueringmuchofBritaintill410.Severalcenturieslater,thenativeroyaldynastywasrestoredwiththeaccessionofEdwardtheConfessorin1042.TheNormanconqueredEnglandin1066,whichledtothealmosttotaldispossessionoftheEnglisheliteanditsreplacementbyanewFrench-speakingaristocracy.TheHouseofPlantagenetfromAnjouinheritedtheEnglishthroneunderHenryII.Duringthe14thcentury,thePlantagenetandHouseofValoisclashedintheHundredYears’War.TheBlackDeathepidemichitEngland,startingin1348.ThecivilwarledtotheYorkistslosingthethroneentirelytoaWelshnoblefamilytheTudors.2.EarlyModernDuringtheTudorperiod,Englandbegantodevelopnavalskills,andexplorationtotheWestintensified.HenryVIIIbrokefromcommunionwiththeCatholicChurch.Therootsofthesplitweremorepoliticalthantheological.However,therewereinternalreligiousconflictsduringthereignsofHenry’sdaughters,MaryIandElizabethI.DuringtheElizabethanperiod,competingwithSpain,thefirstEnglishcolonyintheAmericaswasfoundedin1585.WiththeEastIndiaCompany,EnglandalsocompetedwiththeDutchandFrench.Thepoliticalstructureoftheislandwaschangedin1603.However,basedonconflictingpolitical,religiousandsocialpositions,theEnglishCivilWarwasfought.TheParliamentarianswerevictorious,CharlesIwasexecutedandthekingdomreplacedwiththeCommonwealth.ItwasnowconstitutionallyestablishedthatKingandParliamentshouldruletogether,thoughParliamentwouldhavetherealpower.ThiswasestablishedwiththeBillofRightsin1689.BillofRightsTheGreatFireofLondonin1666guttedtheCityofLondonbutitwasrebuiltshortlyafterwards.InParliamenttheToriesandWhigshad.AftertheparliamentsofEnglandandScotlandagreed,thetwocountriesjoinedinpoliticalunion,tocreatetheKingdomofGreatBritainin1707.Toaccommodatetheunion,institutionssuchasthelawandnationalchurchofeachremainedseparate.OliverCromwell3.LateModernandContemporaryUnderthenewlyformedKingdomofGreatBritain,outputfromtheRoyalSocietyandotherEnglishinitiativescombinedwiththeScottishEnlightenmenttocreateinnovationsinscienceandengineering.ThispavedthewayfortheestablishmentoftheBritishEmpire.DuringtheIndustrialRevolution,manyworkersmovedfromEngland’scountrysidetonewandexpandingurbanindustrialareastoworkinfactories.

LondonbecamethelargestandmostpopulousmetropolitanareaintheworldduringtheVictorianera.Powershiftsineast-centralEuropeledtoWorldWarI.Twodecadeslater,inWorldWarII,theUnitedKingdomwasagainoneoftheAllies.Followingthewar,theBritishEmpireexperiencedrapiddecolonization,andtherewasaspeedingupoftechnologicalinnovations.Combined,thesechangespromptedthereformoflocalgovernmentinEnglandinthemid-20thcentury.Sincethe20thcenturytherehasbeensignificantpopulationmovementtoEngland.Notes1. TheNormanconquestofEngland

beganon28September1066withtheinvasionofEnglandbyWilliam,DukeofNormandy,whobecameknownasWilliamtheConquerorafterhisvictoryattheBattleofHastingson14October1066,defeatingthekingHaroldIIofEngland.TheNormanConquestwasapivotaleventinEnglishhistory.Itlargelyremovedthenativerulingclass,replacingitwithaforeign,French-speakingmonarchy,aristocracy,andclericalhierarchy.This,inturn,broughtaboutatransformationoftheEnglishlanguageandthecultureofEnglandinaneweraoftenreferredtoasNormanEngland.2. TheHouseofPlantagenet

wasaroyalhousefoundedbyGeoffreyVofAnjou,fatherofHenryIIofEngland.PlantagenetkingsfirstruledtheKingdomofEnglandinthe12thcentury.TheirpaternalancestorsoriginatedintheFrenchprovinceofGâtinaisandgainedtheCountyofAnjouthroughmarriageduringthe11thcentury.Thedynastyaccumulatedseveralotherholdings,buildingtheAngevinEmpirewhichatitspeakstretchedfromthePyreneestoIrelandandtheborderwithScotland.3.TheHundredYears’Warwasaseriesofwarswagedfrom1337to1453bytheHouseofValoisandtheHouseofPlantagenet,alsoknownastheHouseofAnjou,fortheFrenchthrone,whichhadbecomevacantupontheextinctionoftheseniorCapetianlineofFrenchkings.TheHouseofValoisclaimedthetitleofKingofFrance,whilethePlantagenetsclaimedthethronesofbothFranceandEngland.ThePlantagenetkingswerethe12th-centuryrulersoftheKingdomofEngland,andhadtheirrootsintheFrenchregionsofAnjouandNormandy.4.TheWarsoftheRoseswereaseriesofdynasticcivilwarsforthethroneofEnglandfoughtbetweensupportersoftworivalbranchesoftheroyalHouseofPlantagenet:thehousesofLancasterandYork(the“red〞andthe“white〞rose,respectively).Theywerefoughtinseveralsporadicepisodesbetween1455and1485,althoughtherewasrelatedfightingbothbeforeandafterthisperiod.ThefinalvictorywenttoarelativelyremoteLancastrianclaimant,HenryTudor,whodefeatedthelastYorkistkingRichardIIIandmarriedEdwardIV’sdaughterElizabethofYorktounitethetwohouses.TheHouseofTudorsubsequentlyruledEnglandandWalesfor117years.5.OliverCromwell(克伦威尔)(25April1599—3September1658)wasanEnglishmilitaryandpoliticalleaderwhooverthrewtheEnglishmonarchyandtemporarilyturnedEnglandintoarepublicanCommonwealth,andruledEngland,ScotlandandIreland.CromwellwasoneofthecommandersoftheNewModelArmywhichdefeatedtheroyalistsintheEnglishCivilWar.AftertheexecutionofKingCharlesIin1649,Cromwelldominatedtheshort-livedCommonwealthofEngland,conqueredIrelandandScotland,andruledasLordProtectorfrom1653untilhisdeathin1658.6.TheVictorianeraoftheUnitedKingdomwastheperiodofQueenVictoria’sreignfrom20June1837untilherdeathon22January1901.ItwasalongperiodofprosperityfortheBritishpeople.Theeraisoftencharacterizedasalongperiodofpeace,knownasthePaxBritannica,andeconomic,colonial,andindustrialconsolidation,temporarilydisruptedbytheCrimeanWar,althoughBritainwasatwareveryyearduringthistime.Towardstheendofthe19thcentury,thepoliciesofNewImperialismledtoincreasingcolonialconflictsandeventuallytheAnglo-ZanzibarWarandtheBoerWar.Domestically,theagendawasincreasinglyliberalwithanumberofshiftsinthedirectionofgradualpoliticalreformandthewideningofthevotingfranchise.Section2IndustrialRevolutionTheIndustrialRevolutionwasaperiodfromthe18thtothe19thcenturywheremajorchangesinagriculture,manufacturing,mining,transportation,andtechnologyhadaprofoundeffectonthesocioeconomicandculturalconditionsofthetimes.ItbeganintheUnitedKingdom,thensubsequentlyspreadthroughoutEurope,NorthAmerica,andeventuallytheworld.InnovationsTextiles,

steampowerandironmaking

representthree‘leadingsectors’,inwhichtherewerekeyinnovations,whichallowedtheeconomictakeoffbywhichtheIndustrialRevolutionisusuallydefined.TransferofKnowledgeKnowledgeofinnovationwasspreadbyseveralmeans.Workerswhoweretrainedinthetechniquemightmovetoanotheremployerormightbepoached.Acommonmethodwasforsomeonetomakeastudytour,gatheringinformationwherehecould.Anothermeansforthespreadofinnovationwasbythenetworkofinformalphilosophicalsocieties.Othersuchsocietiespublishedvolumesofproceedingsandtransactions.Therewerepublicationsdescribingtechnology.Periodicalpublicationsaboutmanufacturingandtechnologybegantoappearinthelastdecadeofthe18thcentury,andmanyregularlyincludednoticeofthelatestpatents.Notes1.RobertEmersonLucas,Jr.(bornSeptember15,1937,Yakima,Washington)isanAmericaneconomistattheUniversityofChicago.HereceivedtheNobelPrizeinEconomicsin1995andisconsistentlyindexedamongthetop10economistsintheResearchPapersinEconomicsrankings.HeismarriedtoeconomistNancyStokey.2.EricJohnErnestHobsbawm(usuallyknownas“EricHobsbawm〞or“E.J.Hobsbawm〞),CH,FBA,(born9June1917)isaBritishMarxisthistorian,publicintellectual,andauthor.Hisbestknownworksincludethetrilogyaboutthelong19thcentury:TheAgeofRevolution:Europe1789-1848,TheAgeofCapital:1848-1875andTheAgeofEmpire:1875-1914.3.ThomasSouthcliffeAshton(1899—1968)wasanEnglisheconomichistorian.HewasprofessorofeconomichistoryattheLondonSchoolofEconomicsattheUniversityofLondonfrom1944until1954,andEmeritusProfessoruntilhisdeathin1968.HisbestknownworkisTheIndustrialRevolution(1760—1830)(1961),whichputforthapositiveviewonthebenefitsofthisera.4.SirJohnHaroldClapham,CBE,LittD,FBA(13September1873—29March1946)wasaBritisheconomichistorian.HewaseducatedatTheLeysSchoolinCambridgeandKing’sCollege,Cambridge.HewasthefirstProfessorofEconomicHistoryatCambridgeUniversityfrom1928to1938,andVice-ProvostofKing’sCollege,Cambridgefrom1933until1943inwhichyearhereceivedaknighthood.5.NicholasF.R.Crafts(born9March1949,Nottingham,England)isProfessorofEconomicsandEconomicHistoryattheUniversityofWarwick,aposthehasheldsince2005.PreviouslyhewasaProfessorofEconomicHistoryatLondonSchoolofEconomicsandPoliticalScience(LSE)between1995and2005.HealsoteachesfortheTRIUMGlobalExecutiveMBAProgram,anallianceofNYUStern,theLSEandHECSchoolofManagement.HismainfieldsofinterestaretheBritisheconomyinthelast200years,Europeaneconomicgrowth,historicaldataontheBritisheconomy,theIndustrialRevolutionandinternationalincomedistribution,especiallywithreferencetotheHumanDevelopmentIndex.Hehasproducedasubstantialbodyofpapersforacademicjournals,theBritishgovernmentandinternationalinstitutionssuchastheInternationalMonetaryFund.6.SamuelCrompton

(3December1753—26June1827)wasanEnglishinventorandpioneerofthespinningindustry.7.SirRichardArkwright

(23December1732—3August1793),wasanEnglishmanwho,althoughthepatentswereeventuallyoverturned,isoftencreditedforinventingthespinningframe—laterrenamedthewaterframefollowingthetransitiontowaterpower.Healsopatentedacardingenginethatcouldconvertrawcottonintoyarn.Aself-mademan,hewasaleadingentrepreneuroftheIndustrialRevolution.Arkwright’sachievementwastocombinepower,machinery,semi-skilledlabour,andanewrawmaterial(cotton)tocreate,morethanacenturybeforeFord,massproducedyarn.Hisskillsoforganizationmadehimmorethananyoneelse,thecreatorofthemodernfactorysystem,especiallyinhismillatCromford.8.JamesWatt,FRS,FRSE(19January1736—25August1819)wasaScottishinventorandmechanicalengineerwhoseimprovementstotheNewcomensteamenginewerefundamentaltothechangesbroughtbytheIndustrialRevolutioninboththeKingdomofGreatBritainandtheworld.9.HenryCort(1741?—May23,1800)wasanEnglishironmaster.DuringtheIndustrialRevolutioninEngland,Cortbeganrefiningironfrompigirontowroughtiron(orbariron)usinginnovativeproductionsystems.In1783hepatentedthepuddlingprocessforrefiningironore.TheHenryCortCommunityCollegebearshisname,locatedinthelargetownofFareham,inthesouthofHampshire,England.Watt10.RichardTrevithick(13April1771—22April1833)wasaBritishinventorandminingengineerfromCornwall.Hismostsignificantsuccesswasthehighpressuresteamengineandhealsobuiltthefirstfull-scaleworkingrailwaysteamlocomotive.On21February1804theworld’sfirstlocomotive-hauledrailwayjourneytookplaceasTrevithick’sunnamedsteamlocomotivehauledatrainalongthetramwayofthePenydarrenIronworks,inMerthyrTydfilinWales.isacityandmetropolitanboroughinGreaterManchester,England.AccordingtotheOfficeforNationalStatistics,the2021mid-yearpopulationestimateforManchesterwas498800.ManchesterlieswithinoneoftheUK’slargestmetropolitanareas,themetropolitancountyofGreaterManchester,whichhasanestimatedpopulationof2.6million.ThedemonymofManchesterisMancunianandsymbolsincludetheManchesterbee.12.JohnSmeaton,FRS,(8June1724—28October1792)wasanEnglishcivilengineerresponsibleforthedesignofbridges,canals,harboursandlighthouses.Hewasalsoacapablemechanicalengineerandaneminentphysicist.Smeatonwasthefirstself-proclaimedcivilengineer,andoftenregardedasthe“fatherofcivilengineering〞.13.TheLunarSocietyofBirminghamwasadinnerclubandinformallearnedsocietyofprominentfiguresintheMidlandsEnlightenment,includingindustrialists,naturalphilosophersandintellectuals,whometregularlybetween1765and1813inBirmingham,England.AtfirstcalledtheLunarCircle,“LunarSociety〞becametheformalnameby1775.Thenamearosebecausethesocietywouldmeetduringthefullmoon,astheextralightmadethejourneyhomeeasierandsaferintheabsenceofstreetlighting.Thememberscheerfullyreferredtothemselvesas“lunarticks〞,apunonlunatics.VenuesincludedErasmusDarwin’shomeinLichfield,MatthewBoulton’shome,SohoHouse,andGreatBarrHall.14.JohnHarris(c.1666—7September1719)wasanEnglishwriter,scientist,andAnglicanpriest.HeisbestknownastheeditoroftheLexiconTechnicum:or,AUniversalEnglishDictionaryofArtsandSciences(1704),theearliestofEnglishencyclopaedias,andasthecompileroftheCollectionofVoyagesandTravelswhichwaspublishedunderhisname.15.LexiconTechnicum:or,AnUniversalEnglishDictionaryofArtsandSciences:ExplainingnotonlytheTermsofArt,buttheArtsThemselveswasinmanyrespectsthefirstalphabeticalencyclopediawritteninEnglish.AlthoughtheemphasisoftheLexiconTechnicumw