自考本科段现代语言学笔记

经典word整理文档，仅参考，双击此处可删除页眉页脚。本资料属于网络整理，如有侵权，请联系删除，谢谢！ADetailedNoteforModernLinguisticsChapter1:Introduction1.Definethefollowingterms:1).Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2).Generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgenerallinguistics.3).Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.4).Synchronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimeisasynchronicstudy.5).Diachronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare’stimeisadiachronicstudy.6).Languagecompetence:Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generative（转化生成语法）isamodeloflanguagecompetence.7).Languageperformance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.8).Langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.9).Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.10).Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.11).Arbitrariness:（任意性）Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.12).Productivity:(多产性)Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.13).Duality:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.14).Displacement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.15).Culturaltransmission:Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.16).Designfeatures:Itreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication2.Explainthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.Linguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真实的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypotheses,（臆测）andtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.13.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?(语言学的主要分支是什么。每个分支的研究对象是什么？)Linguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingbranches:1)Generallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy2)Phonetics,语音学whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticcommunication3)Phonology,音系学whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunication4)Morphology,形态学whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwords5)Syntax,句法学whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentences6),语义学whichisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.7)Pragmatics,语用学whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuse8)Sociolinguistics,社会语言学whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety9)Psycholinguistics,语言心理学whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.10)Appliedlinguistics,应用语言学whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.11)Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学),neurologicals神经语言学）,mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）,andcomputationallinguistics（计算机语言学）.4.Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditionalgrammarisprescriptive（规定性）;itisbasedon"high"(religious,literary)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstofollow.ButModernlinguisticsisdescriptive（描述性）;itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtobescientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis"correct"ornot.5.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic（共时性）ordiachronic（历时性）?Why?(Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.)Modernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.6.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?Modernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingreasons:First,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.Third,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.7.Saussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetof2conventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteusconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueisabstract;itisnotthelanguagepeopbutparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelatdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationto8.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用linguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompeandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceasaluser’stherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrammaticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,theactualthisknowledgeinAlthoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfect,hisperformancesmayhavebecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc…Chomskybeliwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichaphazard然的).9.HowislangueandparoleChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Andwhatistheirdifference?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandactualuseoflanguage.Theiroutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflanmatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviehimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.10.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Firstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtoSecond,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatnbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages.Theterm―human‖ismeanttospecifythatlangun11.WhathumanlanguagehavebeenCharlesHockettshowessentiallydifferentfromanyanimal1.本答案：asignofsophisticationonlyhumansareof)meansnomeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmaloftheThelanguageisasignofitmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.2.animalsarequitelimitedinthemessagesareabletoisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructiofhaveneversaidorheardbefore.3.featuretotallylackinginanyanimalcomthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneoflowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevelstructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunits3higherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordoublearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirknowledge.4.Displacement（移位性）:（课本答案：noanimalcan―talk‖aboutthingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationLanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.5.Culturaltransmission（文化传递性）：（课本答案：detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication）Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.12.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexplainedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,拟声wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements―photo‖and―copy‖in―photocopy‖arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.Chapter2:Phonology音系学1.Definetheterms:1).phonetics:语音学Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages2).auditoryphonetics:听觉语音学Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.3).acousticphonetics:声学语音学Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonepersontoanother.4).internationalphoneticalphabet[IPA]:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.5).Broadtranscription:宽式标音thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,i.e.oneletter-symbolforonesound.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.6).Narrowtranscription:isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Thisisthetranscriptionusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.7).diacritics:isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.8).Voiceless（清音）:whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.9).Voicing（浊音）:Soundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.10).Vowel:元音thesoundsinproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.11).Consonants:辅音thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.12).phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.13).phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.414).phoneme:音位acollectionofabstractphoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Itisrepresentedorrealizedasacertainphonebyacertainphoneticcontext.15).allophone:音位变体Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample[l]and[l]16).phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.17).Complementarydistribution:referstotherelationbetweentwosimilarphoneswhichareallophonesofthesamephoneme,andtheyoccurindifferentenvironments.18).minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample:binandpin.19).suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,toneandintonation.20).tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantintonelanguages,forexample,inChinese.21).intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Forexample,Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone.2.Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际媒介？为什么？Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechplaysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.3.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?解)1)Articulatoryphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.2)Auditoryphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,andreachesimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.3)Acousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;itdealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（声谱仪）.5.Whatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成的？Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedinthiswayarevoiced.6.Whatisthefunctionofnasalcavity?Howdoesitperformthisfunction?5Thefunctionofnasalcavityistonasalizethesoundsthatareproduced.Itdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassageconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalcavity.7.Describethevariouspartsintheoralcavitywhichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?Thevariouspatsofthetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,andtheback;theuvula;thesoftpalate;thehardpalate;theteethridge(alveolar);theupperandlowerteeth;thelips.8.Howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?宽式标音和严式标音有什么区别？(P22)Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacritics（变音符号）toshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]inusedforthesound[l]inwordslikeleaf[li:f],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Thesound[l]inallthesewordsisdifferslightly.The[l]in[li:f],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringbeforeanotherconsonant,iscalleddark[l],indicatedinnarrowtranscriptionas[l].Thenin[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbythedentalsound[θ],itisthuscalledadental[l],andtranscribedas[helθ]l下有一个向下的框，无法打印）innarrowtranscription.9.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?英语的辅音是如何分类的？1)bymannerofarticulation.2)byplaceofarticulation:10.WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英语的元音是如何分类的？1)Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][æ][a],centralvowelssuchas[ɜ:][][ʌ,andbackvowelssuchas[u:][ʊ][ɔ:]ɔ]ɑ:]2)Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][ʊ,semi-closevowelssuchas[e][ɜ:],semi-openvowelssuchas[][ɔ:],andopenvowelssuchas[æ][a][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].3)Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[ɑ:],arerounded.4)Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][ɜ:][ɔ:][u:][ɑ:]，whiletherestareshortvowels.11.Whatisthedifferencebetweenamonophthong单元音andadiphthong双元音?Amonophthongisoneforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorgansofspeechstartinginthe6positionofonevowelandimmediatelymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel,forexample:aremonophthongs,and[e]arediphthongs.12.Howdophonologystudy?Whodoyoumoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween[l]and[anoraphonologist?Why?hallspeechsoundsandnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonology:soundsystemsofhowsoundsdistinguishmeaning.Itisrealizedascertainphoneanditdistinguishmeaning.Abemoresuchcausedifferencesinmeaning,butcanmakefinerdistinctionsofthesounds.13.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?HowareallophonesrelatedtoaphonePhone:aspeechsound,anecessarilydistinguishPhoneme:acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.(realizedascerdistinguishmeaning)actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticcontexts.14.Whatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminialanguage?Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeabovefeature.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidephonemes.15.Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andmi立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？(p34)Iftwocanoccurinthesametheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.[p],[b]Iftwoaretwothesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementary[p],[phWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,bill.16.Explainwithexamplesassimilationruleandthe(P36,则记一个例子)Sequentialgoverningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.Assimilationassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingonephoneticfeatures.Deletionrulegoverningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthorepresentedinspelling.17.Whataresupresegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfuncconveying(p40)Suprasegmentalphonologicalfeaturesabovethesoundsegmentlevel.Themajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinesentencestressandintonation.1)Thesuchassimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwa7thefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.2)Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,arepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.Andtheothercategoriesofwords(articles,personalpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions)areusuallynotstressed.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence―Heisdrivingmycar.‖Forexample,toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.3)Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.Sentencestressreferstotherelativeforcewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Somewordsaremoreimportantthanothers,andthemoreimportantwordsarepronouncedwithgreaterforceandmademoreprominent.ThemoreimportantwordsinEnglisharenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,andtheothercategoriesofwords(articles,personalpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions)areusuallynotstressed.Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Forexample:Heisdrivingmycar.Mymaybestressedtoemphasizethefactthatthecarismine.1).Morphology:Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Itisdividedintotwosub-branches:inflectionalmorphologyandlexicalorderivationalmorphology.派生形态学2).Inflectionalmorphology:Theinflectionalmorphologystudiestheinflections3).Derivationalmorphology:Derivationalmorphologyisthestudyofword-formation.4).Morpheme:Itisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Forexample:theword―boyish‖consistsoftwomorphemes:―boy‖and―ish‖.5).Freemorpheme:Freemorphemesarethemorphemeswhichareindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesorincombinationwithothermorphemes.Forexample:―help‖,―table‖,―room‖areallfreemorphemes.6).Bound:Boundmorphemesarethemorphemeswhichcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.Forexample:er‖,―dis-―,ss‖areallboundmorphemes.7).Root:Arootisoftenseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinedwithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Forexample:theroot-combineswithanotherrootology‖,wegettheword―geology‖.8).Affix:morphemesmanifestingvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalaffixesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategories,suchas―ing‖,―-est‖,whilederivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword,suchas―ly‖,―dis-―,―un.89).Inflection（屈折）:themanifestationofvariousgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.10).Prefix:Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofaword.Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,buttheyusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.11).Suffix:Suffixesareaddedtotheendofthestems;theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.12).:Astemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.Astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformhimself.13).Derivation:Derivationisaprocessofwordformationbywhichderivativeaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateaword.14).Compounding:Compoundingcanbeviewedasthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.2.Whatdoesmorphologystudy?Morphologyisabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Theaimofmorphologyistofindouttherulesaccordingtowhichwordsareformed.Forexample:―simplify‖,―qualify‖,―beautify‖areformedbyadding―ify‖toeitheranadjectiveoranoun.3.Whatisamorpheme?DescribewithexamplesthevarioustypesofmorphemesusedinEnglish.Morphemeisthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.Freemorphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves,forexample,―book‖intheword―bookish‖.Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcan