高中英语重庆大学版Unit5ArtandCulture architecture

ArchitectureSectionandelevationofthedomeof.,inthebuildingofthedome,notonlytransformedthecathedralandthecityofFlorence,butalsotheroleandstatusofthearchitect.Thetermarchitecture(fromwordαρχιτεκτονική,pronouncedarchitektonike)canrefertoaprocess,aprofessionordocumentation.Asaprocess,architectureistheactivityofandandotherphysicalprimarilytoprovide.Awiderdefinitionoftenincludesthedesignofthetotalbuiltenvironment,fromthemacrolevelofhowabuildingintegrateswithitssurroundinglandscape(see,,and)tothemicrolevelofarchitecturalorconstructiondetailsand,sometimes,.Widerstill,architectureistheactivityofdesigninganykindof.Asaprofession,architectureistheroleofthosepersonsormachinesproviding.Asdocumentation,usuallybasedondrawings,architecturedefinestheand/orofabuildingoranyotherkindofthatistobeorhasbeenconstructed.Architectshaveastheirprimaryobjectprovidingforthespatialandshelterneedsofpeopleingroupsofsomekind(families,schools,churches,businesses,etc.)bythecreativeorganisationofmaterialsandcomponentsinaland-orcity-scape,dealingwith,,,,,,,,,,andpragmaticelementssuchascost,constructionlimitationsandtechnology,toachieveanendwhichisfunctional,economical,practicalandoftenwithartisticandaestheticaspects.Thisdistinguishesarchitecturefromdesign,whichhasasitsprimaryobjectthecreativemanipulationofmaterialsandformsusingandprinciples.Separatefromthedesignprocess,architectureisalsoexperiencedthroughthesenses,whichthereforegivesrisetoaural,visual,olfactory,andtactilearchitecture.Aspeoplemovethroughaspace,architectureisexperiencedasatimesequence.Eventhoughourcultureconsidersarchitecturetobeavisualexperience,theothersensesplayaroleinhowweexperiencebothnaturalandbuiltenvironments.Attitudestowardsthesensesdependonculture.Thedesignprocessandthesensoryexperienceofaspacearedistinctlyseparateviews,eachwithitsownlanguageandassumptions.Architecturalworksareperceivedasculturalandpoliticalandworksofart.Historicalareoftenknownprimarilythroughtheirarchitecturalachievements.Suchbuildingsastheofandtheareculturalsymbols,andareanimportantlinkinpublicconsciousness,evenwhenhavediscoveredmuchaboutapastcivilizationthroughothermeans.Cities,regionsandculturescontinuetoidentifythemselveswith(andareknownby)theirarchitecturalmonuments.EtymologyandapplicationofthetermTheword"architecture"comesfromthearchitecturaandthatfromαρχιτέκτων(architectu),"masterbuilder",fromthecombinationofαρχι-(archi-),"chief"or"leader"andτέκτων(tekton),a"builder"or"carpenter".Whiletheprimaryapplicationoftheword"architecture"pertainstothe,byextension,thetermhascometodenotetheandofcreatinganactual(orinferringanimpliedorapparent)planofanycomplexobjector.Thetermcanbeusedtoconnotetheimpliedarchitectureoforofabstractthingssuchas,theapparentarchitectureofnaturalthings,suchasformationsorthe,orexplicitlyplannedarchitecturesofwhichpreservestherelationshipsamongtheelementsorcomponents.TheoryofArchitectureMainarticle:HistorictreatisesofdetailsofthePalaceof,Theearliestwrittenworkonthesubjectofarchitectureis,bytheRomanarchitectintheearly1stcenturyCE.AccordingtoVitruvius,agoodbuildingshouldsatisfythethreeprinciplesoffirmitatisutilitatisvenustatis,whichtranslatesroughlyas-Durability-itshouldstanduprobustlyandremainingoodcondition.Utility-itshouldbeusefulandfunctionwellforthepeopleusingit.Beauty-itshoulddelightpeopleandraisetheirspirits.AccordingtoVitruvius,thearchitectshouldstrivetofulfilleachofthesethreeattributesaswellaspossible.The,,"thesupremeexampleamongarchitecturalsites.".,whoelaboratesontheideasofVitruviusinhistreatise,,sawbeautyprimarilyasamatterofproportion,althoughornamentalsoplayedapart.ForAlberti,therulesofproportionwerethosethatgovernedtheidealisedhumanfigure,the.Themostimportantaspectofbeautywasthereforeaninherentpartofanobject,ratherthansomethingappliedsuperficially;andwasbasedonuniversal,recognisabletruths.Thenotionofstyleintheartswasnotdevelopeduntilthe16thcentury,withthewritingof.Thetreatises,bythe18thcentury,hadbeentranslatedintoItalian,French,SpanishandEnglish.Intheearlynineteenthcentury,wroteContrasts(1836)that,asthetitledsuggested,contrastedthemodern,industrialworld,whichhedisparaged,withanidealizedimageofneo-medievalworld.,Puginbelieved,wastheonly“trueChristianformofarchitecture.”The19thcenturyEnglishartcritic,,inhisSevenLampsofArchitecture,published1849,wasmuchnarrowerinhisviewofwhatconstitutedarchitecture.Architecturewasthe"artwhichsodisposesandadornstheedificesraisedbymen...thatthesightofthem"contributes"tohismentalhealth,power,andpleasure".ForRuskin,theaestheticwasofoverridingsignificance.Hisworkgoesontostatethatabuildingisnottrulyaworkofarchitectureunlessitisinsomeway"adorned".ForRuskin,awell-constructed,well-proportioned,functionalbuildingneededstringcoursesorrustication,attheveryleast.Onthedifferencebetweentheidealsof"architecture"andmere,therenowned20thC.architectwrote:"Youemploystone,wood,andconcrete,andwiththesematerialsyoubuildhousesandpalaces:thatisconstruction.Ingenuityisatwork.Butsuddenlyyoutouchmyheart,youdomegood.IamhappyandIsay:Thisisbeautiful.ThatisArchitecture".The,designedby.ModernconceptsofarchitectureThegreat19thcenturyarchitectofskyscrapers,,promotedanoverridingprecepttoarchitecturaldesign:"".Whilethenotionthatstructuralandaestheticconsiderationsshouldbeentirelysubjecttofunctionalitywasmetwithbothpopularityandskepticism,ithadtheeffectofintroducingtheconceptof"function"inplaceofVitruvius"utility"."Function"cametobeseenasencompassingallcriteriaoftheuse,perceptionandenjoymentofabuilding,notonlypracticalbutalsoaesthetic,psychologicalandcultural.,designedby.NunziaRondaninistated,"Throughitsaestheticdimensionarchitecturegoesbeyondthefunctionalaspectsthatithasincommonwithotherhumansciences.Throughitsownparticularwayofexpressing,architecturecanstimulateandinfluencesociallifewithoutpresumingthat,inandofitself,itwillpromotesocialdevelopment.Torestrictthemeaningof(architectural)formalismtoartforart'ssakeisnotonlyreactionary;itcanalsobeapurposelessquestforperfectionororiginalitywhichdegradesformintoamereinstrumentality".Amongthephilosophiesthathaveinfluencedmodernarchitectsandtheirapproachtobuildingdesignare,,,,and.Inthelate20thcenturyanewconceptwasaddedtothoseincludedinthecompassofbothstructureandfunction,theconsiderationof.Tosatisfythemodernethosabuildingshouldbeconstructedinamannerwhichisenvironmentallyfriendlyintermsoftheproductionofitsmaterials,itsimpactuponthenaturalandbuiltenvironmentofitssurroundingareaandthedemandsthatitmakesuponnon-sustainablepowersourcesforheating,cooling,waterandwastemanagementand.HistoryMainarticle:Vernaculararchitecturein.OriginsandtheancientworldArchitecturefirstevolvedoutofthedynamicsbetweenneeds(shelter,security,worship,etc.)andmeans(availableandattendantskills).Ashumanculturesdevelopedandknowledgebegantobeformalizedthroughoraltraditionsandpractices,architecturebecamea.Herethereisaprocessoftrialanderror,andlaterimprovisationorreplicationofasuccessfultrial.Whatistermedcontinuestobeproducedinmanypartsoftheworld.Indeed,vernacularbuildingsmakeupmostofthebuiltworldthatpeopleexperienceeveryday.,.Earlyhumansettlementsweremostly.Duetoasurplusinproductiontheeconomybegantoexpandresultinginurbanizationthuscreatingwhichgrewandevolvedveryrapidlyinsomecases,suchasthatofinandinPakistan.Inmanyancientcivilizations,liketheEgyptians'andMesopotamians',architectureandurbanismreflectedtheconstantengagementwiththedivineandthe,whileinotherancientculturessuchasarchitectureandwasusedtoexemplifythepowerofthestate.Thearchitectureandofthesuchastheandtheevolvedfromcivicidealsratherthanreligiousorempiricalonesandnewbuildingtypesemerged.Architecturalstylesdeveloped.TextsonarchitecturebegantobewrittenintheClassicalperiod.Thesebecamecanonstobefollowedinimportantworks,especiallyreligiousarchitecture.Someexamplesofcanonsarefoundinthewritingsof,theofancientandofancient.ThearchitectureofdifferentpartsofdevelopedalongdifferentlinestothatofEurope,Buddhist,HinduandSikharchitectureeachhavingdifferentcharacteristics.Buddhistarchitecture,inparticular,showedgreatregionaldiversity.Inmanycountriesapantheisticreligionledtoarchitecturalformsthatweredesignedspecificallytoenhancethe.TheMedievalbuilderThissectiondoesnotany.Pleasehelpbyaddingcitationsto.materialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2023)The,inbeganinthe7thcentury,developingfromthearchitecturalformsoftheancientbutdevelopingfeaturestosuitthereligiousandsocialneedsofthesociety.ExamplescanbefoundthroughouttheMiddleEast,NorthAfricaandSpain,andweretobecomeasignificantstylisticinfluenceonEuropeanarchitectureduringtheMedievalperiod.,,England.In,inboththeandperiods,buildingswerenotattributedtospecificindividualsandthenamesofthearchitectsfrequentlyunknown,despitethevastscaleofthemanyreligiousbuildingsextantfromthisperiod.DuringtheMedievalperiodwereformedbycraftsmentoorganisetheirtradeandwrittencontractshavesurvived,particularlyinrelationtoecclesiasticalbuildings.Theroleofarchitectwasusuallyonewithmasterbuilder,exceptinthecasewhereacleric,suchastheatSaintDenis,Paris,providedthedesign.Overtimethecomplexityofbuildingsandtheirtypesincreased.Generalcivilconstructionsuchasroadsandbridgesbegantobebuilt.Manynewbuildingtypessuchasschools,hospitals,andrecreationalfacilitiesemerged.RenaissanceandthearchitectThissectiondoesnotany.Pleasehelpbyaddingcitationsto.materialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2023),by.Withtheanditsemphasisontheindividualandhumanityratherthanreligion,andwithallitsattendantprogressandachievements,anewchapterbegan.Buildingswereascribedtospecificarchitects-,,,-andthecultoftheindividualhadbegun.Buttherewasnodividinglinebetween,and,oranyoftherelatedvocations.Atthisstage,itwasstillpossibleforanartisttodesignabridgeasthelevelofstructuralcalculationsinvolvedwaswithinthescopeofthegeneralist.Withtheemergingknowledgeinscientificfieldsandtheriseofnewmaterialsandtechnology,architectureandbegantoseparate,andthearchitectbegantolosegroundonsometechnicalaspectsofbuildingdesign.Hethereforeconcentratedonandtheaspects.StPancrasMidlandHotel,Therewasalsotheriseofthe"gentlemanarchitect"whousuallydealtwithwealthyclientsandconcentratedpredominantlyonvisualqualitiesderivedusuallyfromhistoricalprototypes,typifiedbythemanycountryhousesofGreatBritainthatwerecreatedintheorstyles.Formalarchitecturaltraining,inthe19thcentury,at,forexamplein,gavemuchemphasistotheproductionofbeautifuldrawingsandlittletocontextandfeasibility.Effectivearchitectsgenerallyreceivedtheirtrainingintheofficesofotherarchitects,graduatingtotherolefromdraughtsmenorclerks.Meanwhile,thelaidopenthedoorformassproductionandconsumption.Aestheticsbecameacriterionforthemiddleclassasornamentedproducts,oncewithintheprovinceofexpensivecraftsmanship,becamecheaperundermachineproduction.Vernaculararchitecturebecameincreasinglyornamental.Housebuilderscouldusecurrentarchitecturaldesignintheirworkbycombiningfeaturesfoundinpatternbooksandarchitecturaljournals.ModernismandreactionofarchitectureThissectiondoesnotany.Pleasehelpbyaddingcitationsto.materialmaybechallengedandremoved.(July2023)Mainarticle:TheDessauarchitecturedepartmentfrom1925byThedissatisfactionwithsuchageneralsituationattheturnofthetwentiethcenturygaverisetomanynewlinesofthoughtthatservedasprecursorsto.Notableamongtheseisthe,formedin1907toproducebetterqualitymachinemadeobjects.Theriseoftheprofessionofisusuallyplacedhere.Followingthislead,theschool,foundedinin1919,consciouslyrejectedandlookedatarchitectureasasynthesisofart,craft,andtechnology.Whenwasfirstpracticed,itwasanmovementwithmoral,philosophical,andaestheticunderpinnings.Immediatelyafter,pioneeringmodernistarchitectssoughttodevelopacompletelynewstyleappropriateforanewpost-warsocialandeconomicorder,focusedonmeetingtheneedsofthemiddleandworkingclasses.Theyrejectedthearchitecturalpracticeoftheacademicrefinementofhistoricalstyleswhichservedtherapidlydecliningaristocraticorder.by.TheapproachoftheModernistarchitectswastoreducebuildingstopureforms,removinghistoricalreferencesandornamentinfavoroffunctionalistdetails.Buildingsthatdisplayedtheirconstructionandstructure,exposingsteelbeamsandconcretesurfacesinsteadofhidingthembehindtraditionalforms,wereseenasbeautifulintheirownright.Architectssuchasworkedtocreatebeautybasedontheinherentqualitiesofbuildingmaterialsandmodernconstructiontechniques,tradingtraditionalhistoricformsforsimplifiedgeometricforms,celebratingthenewmeansandmethodsmadepossiblebythe.ManyarchitectsresistedModernism,findingitdevoidofthedecorativerichnessofornamentedstyles.Asthefoundersofthelostinfluenceinthelate1970s,developedasareactionagainsttheausterityofModernism.'scontentionthata"decoratedshed"(anordinarybuildingwhichisfunctionallydesignedinsideandembellishedontheoutside)wasbetterthana"duck"(abuildinginwhichthewholeformanditsfunctionaretiedtogether)givesanideaofthisapproach.ArchitecturetodayMainarticle:Postmoderndesignat,,by.Partofthearchitecturalprofession,andalsosomenon-architects,respondedtoandbygoingtowhatthe