考研英语试题2000年至2012年

2012老蜀英语立题艮答豫

SectionIUseofEnglish

Directions：

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmark

A,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Readthefollowingtext.Choosethebestword(s)foreachnumberedblankandmark

A,B,CorDonANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

TheethicaljudgmentsoftheSupremeCourtjusticeshavebecomeanimportantissue

recently.Thecourtcannot_1_itslegitimacyasguardianoftheruleoflaw_2_justices

behavelikepoliticians.Yet,inseveralinstances,justicesactedinwaysthat_3_the

court'sreputationforbeingindependentandimpartial.

JusticeAntoninScalia,forexample,appearedatpoliticalevents.Thatkindofactivity

makesitlesslikelythatthecourt'sdecisionswillbe_4_asimpartialjudgments.Partof

theproblemisthatthejusticesarenot_5_byanethicscode.Attheveryleast,thecourt

shouldmakeitself_6_tothecodeofconductthat_7_totherestofthefederaljudiciary.

Thisandothersimilarcases_8_thequestionofwhetherthereisstilla_9_between

thecourtandpolitics.

TheframersoftheConstitutionenvisionedlaw_10_havingauthorityapartfrom

politics.Theygavejusticespermanentpositions_11_theywouldbefreeto_12_thosein

powerandhavenoneedto_13_politicalsupport.Ourlegalsystemwasdesignedtoset

lawapartfrompoliticspreciselybecausetheyaresoclosely_14_.

Constitutionallawispoliticalbecauseitresultsfromchoicesrootedinfundamental

social_15_likelibertyandproperty.Whenthecourtdealswithsocialpolicydecisions,

thelawit_16_isinescapablypolitical-whichiswhydecisionssplitalongideologicallines

aresoeasily_17_asunjust.

Thejusticesmust_18_doubtsaboutthecourt'slegitimacybymakingthemselves

_19_tothecodeofconduct.Thatwouldmakerulingsmorelikelytobeseenasseparate

frompoliticsand,_20_,convincingaslaw.

1.[A]emphasize[B]maintain[C]modify[D]recognize

2.[A]when[B]lest[C]before[D]unless

3.[A]restored[B]weakened[C]established[D]eliminated

4.[A]challenged[B]compromised[C]suspected[D]accepted

5.[A]advanced[B]caught[C]bound[D]founded

6.[A]resistant[B]subject[C]immune[D]prone

7.[A]resorts[B]sticks[C]loads[D]applies

8.[A]evade[B]raise[C]deny[D]settle

9.[A]line[B]barrier[C]similarity[D]conflict

10.[A]by[B]as[C]though[D]towards

11.[A]so[B]since[C]provided[D]though

12.[A]serve[B]satisfy[C]upset[D]replace

13.[A]confirm[B]express[C]cultivate[D]offer

14.[A]guarded[B]followed[C]studied[D]tied

15.[A]concepts[B]theories[C]divisions[D]conceptions

16.[A]excludes[B]questions[C]shapes[D]controls

17.[A]dismissed[B]released[C]ranked[D]distorted

18.[A]suppress[B]exploit[C]address[D]ignore

19.[A]accessible[B]amiable[C]agreeable[D]accountable

20.[A]byallmesns[B]atallcosts[C]inaword[D]asaresult

SectionIIReadingComprehension

PartA

Directions：

Readthefollowingfourtexts.AnswerthequestionsbeloweachtextbychoosingA,

B,CorD.MarkyouranswersonANSWERSHEET1.(40points)

Text1

Comeon-Everybody*sdoingit.Thatwhisperedmessage,halfinvitationandhalf

forcing,iswhatmostofusthinkofwhenwehearthewordspeerpressure.Itusually

leadstonogood-drinking,drugsandcasualsex.ButinhernewbookJointheClub,Tina

Rosenbergcontendsthatpeerpressurecanalsobeapositiveforcethroughwhatshecalls

thesocialcure,inwhichorganizationsandofficialsusethepowerofgroupdynamicsto

helpindividualsimprovetheirlivesandpossiblytheword.

Rosenberg,therecipientofaPulitzerPrize,offersahostofexampleofthesocial

cureinaction：InSouthCarolina,astate-sponsoredantismokingprogramcalledRage

AgainsttheHazesetsouttomakecigarettesuncool.InSouthAfrica,anHIV-prevention

initiativeknownasLoveLiferecruitsyoungpeopletopromotesafesexamongtheirpeers.

Theideaseemspromising,andRosenbergisaperceptiveobserver.Hercritiqueofthe

lamenessofmanypubic-healthcampaignsisspot-on：theyfailtomobilizepeerpressure

forhealthyhabits,andtheydemonstrateaseriouslyflawedunderstandingof

psychology.uDaretobedifferent,pleasedon'tsmoke!”pleadsonebillboardcampaign

aimedatreducingsmokingamongteenagers-teenagers,whodesirenothingmorethan

fittingin.Rosenbergarguesconvincinglythatpublic-healthadvocatesoughttotakea

pagefromadvertisers,soskilledatapplyingpeerpressure.

Butonthegeneraleffectivenessofthesocialcure,Rosenbergislesspersuasive.Join

theClubisfilledwithtoomuchirrelevantdetailandnotenoughexplorationofthesocial

andbiologicalfactorsthatmakepeerpressuresopowerful.Themostglaringflawofthe

socialcureasit'spresentedhereisthatitdoesn*tworkverywellforverylong.Rage

AgainsttheHazefailedoncestatefundingwascut.EvidencethattheLoveLifeprogram

produceslastingchangesislimitedandmixed.

There'snodoubtthatourpeergroupsexertenormousinfluenceonourbehavior.An

emergingbodyofresearchshowsthatpositivehealthhabits-aswellasnegative

ones-spreadthroughnetworksoffriendsviasocialcommunication.Thisisasubtleformof

peerpressure：weunconsciouslyimitatethebehaviorweseeeveryday.

Farlesscertain,however,ishowsuccessfullyexpertsandbureaucratscanselectour

peergroupsandsteertheiractivitiesinvirtuousdirections.It*sliketheteacherwho

breaksupthetroublemakersinthebackrowbypairingthemwithbetter-behaved

classmates.Thetacticneverreallyworks.Andthat'stheproblemwithasocialcure

engineeredfromtheoutside：intherealworld,asinschool,weinsistonchoosingour

ownfriends.

21.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,peerpressureoftenemergesas

[A]asupplementtothesocialcure

[B]astimulustogroupdynamics

[C]anobstacletoschoolprogress

[D]acauseofundesirablebehaviors

22.Rosenbergholdsthatpublicadvocatesshould

[A]recruitprofessionaladvertisers

[B]learnfromadvertisers'experience

[C]stayawayfromcommercialadvertisers

[D]recognizethelimitationsofadvertisements

23.Intheauthor'sview,Rosenberg'sbookfailsto

[A]adequatelyprobesocialandbiologicalfactors

[B]effectivelyevadetheflawsofthesocialcure

[C]illustratethefunctionsofstatefunding

[D]producealong-lastingsocialeffect

24.Paragraph5showsthatourimitationofbehaviors

[A]isharmfultoournetworksoffriends

[B]willmisleadbehavioralstudies

[C]occurswithoutourrealizingit

[D]canproducenegativehealthhabits

25.Theauthorsuggestsinthelastparagraphthattheeffectofpeerpressureis

[A]harmful

[B]desirable

[C]profound

[D]questionable

Text2

Adealisadeal-except,apparently,whenEntergyisinvolved.Thecompany,a

majorenergysupplierinNewEngland,provokedjustifiedoutrageinVermontlastweek

whenitannounceditwasrenegingonalongstandingcommitmenttoabidebythestrict

nuclearregulations.

Instead,thecompanyhasdonepreciselywhatithadlongpromiseditwouldnot

challengetheconstitutionalityofVermont'srulesinthefederalcourt,aspartofa

desperateefforttokeepitsVermontYankeenuclearpowerplantrunning.It*sastunning

move.

Theconflicthasbeensurfacingsince2002,whenthecorporationboughtVermont's

onlynuclearpowerplant,anagingreactorinVernon.Asaconditionofreceivingstate

approvalforthesale,thecompanyagreedtoseekpermissionfromstateregulatorsto

operatepast2012.In2006,thestatewentastepfurther,requiringthatanyextension

oftheplant'slicensebesubjecttoVermontlegislature'sapproval.Then,too,the

companywentalong.

EitherEntergyneverreallyintendedtolivebythosecommitments,oritsimplydidn't

foreseewhatwouldhappennext.Astringofaccidents,includingthepartialcollapseof

acoolingtowerin207andthediscoveryofanundergroundpipesystemleakage,raised

seriousquestionsaboutbothVermontYankee'ssafetyandEntergy'smanagement-

especiallyafterthecompanymademisleadingstatementsaboutthepipe.Enragedby

Entergy'sbehavior,theVermontSenatevoted26to4lastyearagainstallowingan

extension.

Nowthecompanyissuddenlyclaimingthatthe2002agreementisinvalidbecauseof

the2006legislation,andthatonlythefederalgovernmenthasregulatorypowerover

nuclearissues.Thelegalissuesinthecaseareobscure：whereastheSupremeCourthas

ruledthatstatesdohavesomeregulatoryauthorityovernuclearpower,legalscholars

saythatVermontcasewillofferaprecedent-settingtestofhowfarthosepowersextend.

Certainly,therearevalidconcernsaboutthepatchworkregulationsthatcouldresultif

everystatesetsitsownrules.ButhadEntergykeptitsword,thatdebatewouldbebeside

thepoint.

ThecompanyseemstohaveconcludedthatitsreputationinVermontisalreadyso

damagedthatithasnotinglefttolosebygoingtowarwiththestate.Butthereshouldbe

consequences.Permissiontorunanuclearplantisapoblictrust.Entergyruns11other

reactorsintheUnitedStates,includingPilgrimNuclearstationinPlymouth.Pledgingto

runPilgrimsafely,thecompanyhasappliedforfederalpermissiontokeepitopenfor

another20years.ButastheNuclearRegulatoryCommission(NRC)reviewsthe

company'sapplication,itshouldkeepitmindwhatpromisesfromEntergyareworth.

26.Thephrase"renegingonM(Line3.para.1)isclosestinmeaningto

[A]condemning.

[B]reaffirming.

[C]dishonoring.

[D]securing.

27.Byenteringintothe2002agreement,Entergyintendedto

[A]obtainprotectionfromVermontregulators.

[B]seekfavorfromthefederallegislature.

[C]acquireanextensionofitsbusinesslicense.

[D]getpermissiontopurchaseapowerplant.

28.AccordingtoParagraph4,Entergyseemstohaveproblemswithits

[A]managerialpractices.

[B]technicalinnovativeness.

[C]financialgoals.

[D]businessvision

29.Intheauthor'sview,theVermontcasewilltest

[A]Entergy'scapacitytofulfillallitspromises.

[B]thematureofstates'patchworkregulations.

[C]thefederalauthorityovernuclearissues.

[D]thelimitsofstates'powerovernuclearissues.

30.Itcanbeinferredfromthelastparagraphthat

[A]Entergy'sbusinesselsewheremightbeaffected.

[B]theauthorityoftheNRCwillbedefied.

[C]EntergywillwithdrawitsPlymouthapplication.

[D]Vermont'sreputationmightbedamaged.

Text3

Intheidealizedversionofhowscienceisdone,factsabouttheworldarewaitingto

beobservedandcollectedbyobjectiveresearcherswhousethescientificmethodtocarry

outtheirwork.Butintheeverydaypracticeofscience,discoveryfrequentlyfollowsan

ambiguousandcomplicatedroute.Weaimtobeobjective,butwecannotescapethe

contextofouruniquelifeexperience.Priorknowledgeandinterestinfluencewhatwe

experience,whatwethinkourexperiencesmean,andthesubsequentactionswetake.

Opportunitiesformisinterpretation,error,andself-deceptionabound.

Consequently,discoveryclaimsshouldbethoughtofasprotoscience.Similarto

newlystakedminingclaims,theyarefullofpotential.Butittakescollectivescrutinyand

acceptancetotransformadiscoveryclaimintoamaturediscovery.Thisisthecredibility

process,throughwhichtheindividualresearcher'sme,here,nowbecomesthe

community'sanyone,anywhere,anytime.Objectiveknowledgeisthegoal,notthe

startingpoint.

Onceadiscoveryclaimbecomespublic,thediscovererreceivesintellectualcredit.

But,unlikewithminingclaims,thecommunitytakescontrolofwhathappensnext.

Withinthecomplexsocialstructureofthescientificcommunity,researchersmake

discoveries；editorsandreviewersactasgatekeepersbycontrollingthepublication

process；otherscientistsusethenewfindingtosuittheirownpurposes；andfinally,the

public(includingotherscientists)receivesthenewdiscoveryandpossiblyaccompanying

technology.Asadiscoveryclaimworksitthroughthecommunity,theinteractionand

confrontationbetweensharedandcompetingbeliefsaboutthescienceandthetechnology

involvedtransformsanindividual'sdiscoveryclaimintothecommunity'scredible

discovery.

Twoparadoxesexistthroughoutthiscredibilityprocess.First,scientificworktendsto

focusonsomeaspectofprevailingKnowledgethatisviewedasincompleteorincorrect.

Littlerewardaccompaniesduplicationandconfirmationofwhatisalreadyknownand

believed.Thegoalisnew-search,notre-search.Notsurprisingly,newlypublished

discoveryclaimsandcrediblediscoveriesthatappeartobeimportantandconvincingwill

alwaysbeopentochallengeandpotentialmodificationorrefutationbyfutureresearchers.

Second,noveltyitselffrequentlyprovokesdisbelief.NobelLaureateandphysiologist

AlbertAzent-GyorgyioncedescribeddiscoveryasHseeingwhateverybodyhasseenand

thinkingwhatnobodyhasthought."Butthinkingwhatnobodyelsehasthoughtandtelling

otherswhattheyhavemissedmaynotchangetheirviews.Sometimesyearsarerequired

fortrulynoveldiscoveryclaimstobeacceptedandappreciated.

Intheend,credibility“happens”toadiscoveryclaim-aprocessthatcorrespondsto

whatphilosopherAnnetteBaierhasdescribedasthecommonsofthemind.uWereason

together,challenge,revise,andcompleteeachother'sreasoningandeachother*s

conceptionsofreason/*

31.Accordingtothefirstparagraph,theprocessofdiscoveryischaracterizedbyits

[A]uncertaintyandcomplexity.

[B]misconceptionanddeceptiveness.

[C]logicalityandobjectivity.

[D]systematicnessandregularity.

32.ItcanbeinferredfromParagraph2thatcredibilityprocessrequires

[A]strictinspection.

[B]sharedefforts.

[C]individualwisdom.

[D]persistentinnovation.

33.Paragraph3showsthatadiscoveryclaimbecomescredibleafterit

[A]hasattractedtheattentionofthegeneralpublic.

[B]hasbeenexaminedbythescientificcommunity.

[C]hasreceivedrecognitionfromeditorsandreviewers.

[D]hasbeenfrequentlyquotedbypeerscientists.

34.AlbertSzent-Gy?rgyiwouldmostlikelyagreethat

[A]scientificclaimswillsurvivechallenges.

[B]discoveriestodayinspirefutureresearch.

[C]effortstomakediscoveriesarejustified.

[D]scientificworkcallsforacriticalmind.

35.Whichofthefollowingwouldbethebesttitleofthetest?

[A]NoveltyasanEngineofScientificDevelopment.

[B]CollectiveScrutinyinScientificDiscovery.

[C]EvolutionofCredibilityinDoingScience.

[D]ChallengetoCredibilityattheGatetoScience.

Text4

IfthetradeunionistJimmyHoffawerealivetoday,hewouldprobablyrepresentcivil

servant.WhenHoffa'sTeamsterswereintheirprimein1960,onlyoneintenAmerican

governmentworkersbelongedtoaunion；now36%do.In2009thenumberofunionists

inAmerica'spublicsectorpassedthatoftheirfellowmembersintheprivatesector.In

Britain,morethanhalfofpublic-sectorworkersbutonlyabout15%ofprivate-sector

onesareunionized.

Therearethreereasonsforthepublic-sectorunions*thriving.First,theycanshut

thingsdownwithoutsufferingmuchinthewayofconsequences.Second,theyaremostly

brightandwell-educated.AquarterofAmerica'spublic-sectorworkershaveauniversity

degree.Third,theynowdominateleft-of-centrepolitics.Someoftheirtiesgobackalong

way.Britain*sLaborParty,asitsnameimplies,haslongbeenassociatedwithtrade

unionism.Itscurrentleader,EdMiliband,oweshispositiontovotesfrompublic-sector

unions.

Atthestateleveltheirinfluencecanbeevenmorefearsome.MarkBaldassareofthe

PublicPolicyInstituteofCaliforniapointsoutthatmuchofthestate'sbudgetispatrolled

byunions.Theteachers'unionskeepaneyeonschools,theCCPOAonprisonsanda

varietyoflaborgroupsonhealthcare.

Inmanyrichcountriesaveragewagesinthestatesectorarehigherthanintheprivate

one.Buttherealgainscomeinbenefitsandworkpractices.Politicianshaverepeatedly

“backloaded”public-sectorpaydeals,keepingthepayincreasesmodestbutaddingto

holidaysandespeciallypensionsthatarealreadygenerous.

Reformhasbeenvigorouslyopposed,perhapsmostegregiouslyineducation,where

charterschools,academiesandmeritpayallfaceddrawn-outbattles.Eventhoughthere

isplentyofevidencethatthequalityoftheteachersisthemostimportantvariable,

teachers*unionshavefoughtagainstgettingridofbadonesandpromotinggoodones.

Asthecosttoeveryoneelsehasbecomeclearer,politicianshavebeguntoclamp

down.InWisconsintheunionshaveralliedthousandsofsupportersagainstScottWalker,

thehardlineRepublicangovernor.Butmanywithinthepublicsectorsufferunderthe

currentsystem,too.

JohnDonahueatHarvard'sKennedySchoolpointsoutthatthenormsofculturein

Westerncivilservicessuitthosewhowanttostayputbutisbadforhighachievers.The

onlyAmericanpublic-sectorworkerswhoearnwellabove$250,000ayearareuniversity

sportscoachesandthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.Bankers*fatpaypacketshave

attractedmuchcriticism,butapublic-sectorsystemthatdoesnotrewardhighachievers

maybeamuchbiggerproblemforAmerica.

36.Itcanbelearnedfromthefirstparagraphthat

[A]Teamstersstillhavealargebodyofmembers.

[B]JimmyHoffausedtoworkasacivilservant.

[C]unionshaveenlargedtheirpublic-sectormembership.

[D]thegovernmenthasimproveditsrelationshipwithunionists.

37.WhichofthefollowingistrueofParagraph2?

[A]Public-sectorunionsareprudentintakingactions.

[B]Educationisrequiredforpublic-sectorunionmembership.

[C]LaborPartyhaslongbeenfightingagainstpublic-sectorunions.

[D]Public-sectorunionsseldomgetintroublefortheiractions.

38.ItcanbelearnedfromParagraph4thattheincomeinthestatesectoris

[A]illegallysecured.

[B]indirectlyaugmented.

[C]excessivelyincreased.

[D]fairlyadjusted.

39.TheexampleoftheunionsinWisconsinshowsthatunions

[A]oftenrunagainstthecurrentpoliticalsystem.

[B]canchangepeople'spoliticalattitudes.

[C]maybeabarriertopublic-sectorreforms.

[D]aredominantinthegovernment.

40.JohnDonahue'sattitudetowardsthepublic-sectorsystemisoneof

[A]disapprovaL

[B]appreciation.

[C]tolerance.

[D]indifference.

PartB

Directions：

Inthefollowingtext,somesentenceshavebeenremoved.ForQuestions41-45,

choosethemostsuitableonefromthelistA-Gtofitintoeachofthenumberedblanks.

Therearetwoextrachoices,whichdonotfitinanyoftheblanks.Markyouranswerson

ANSWERSHEET1.(10points)

Thinkofthosefleetingmomentswhenyoulookoutofanaeroplanewindowand

realisethatyouareflying,higherthanabird.Nowthinkofyourlaptop,thinnerthana

brown-paperenvelope,oryourcellphoneinthepalmofyourhand.Takeamomentor

twotowonderatthosemarvels.Youaretheluckyinheritorofadreamcometrue.

Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawacollectionofgeniuses,warriors,

entrepreneursandvisionarieslabourtocreateafabulousmachinethatcouldfunctionas

atypewriterandprintingpress,studioandtheatre,paintbrushandgallery,pianoand

radio,themailaswellasthemailcarrier.(41)

Thenetworkedcomputerisanamazingdevice,thefirstmediamachinethatserves

asthemodeofproduction,meansofdistribution,siteofreception,andplaceofpraise

andcritique.Thecomputeristhe21stcentury'sculturemachine.

Butforallthereasonstherearetocelebratethecomputer,wemustalsotreadwith

caution.(42)1callitasecretwarfortworeasons.First,mostpeopledonotrealisethat

therearestrongcommercialagendasatworktokeeptheminpassiveconsumptionmode.

Second,themajorityofpeoplewhousenetworkedcomputerstouploadarenoteven

awareofthesignificanceofwhattheyaredoing.

Allanimalsdownload,butonlyafewupload.Beaversbuilddamsandbirdsmake

nests.Yetforthemostpart,theanimalkingdommovesthroughtheworlddownloading.

Humansareuniqueintheircapacitytonotonlymaketoolsbutthenturnaroundanduse

themtocreatesuperfluousmaterialgoods-paintings,sculptureandarchitecture-and

superfluousexperiences-music,literature,religionandphilosophy.(43)

Forallthepossibilitiesofournewculturemachines,mostpeoplearestillstuckin

downloadmode.Evenaftertheadventofwidespreadsocialmedia,apyramidof

productionremains,withasmallnumberofpeopleuploadingmaterial,aslightlylarger

groupcommentingonormodifyingthatcontent,andahugepercentageremaining

contenttojustconsume.(44)

Televisionisaone-waytapflowingintoourhomes.Thehardesttaskthattelevision

asksofanyoneistoturnthepoweroffafterhehasturnediton.

(45)

Whatcountsasmeaningfuluploading?Mydefinitionrevolvesaroundtheconceptof

ustickiness"-creationsandexperiencestowhichothersadhere.

[A]Ofcourse,itispreciselythesesuperfluousthingsthatdefinehumancultureand

ultimatelywhatitistobehuman.Downloadingandconsumingculturerequiresgreat

skills,butfailingtomovebeyonddownloadingistostriponeselfofadefiningconstituent

ofhumanity.

[B]Applicationslike,whichallowuserstocombinepictures,wordsand

othermediaincreativewaysandthensharethem,havethepotentialtoaddstickiness

byamusing,entertainingandenlighteningothers.

[C]Notonlydidtheydevelopsuchadevicebutbytheturnofthemillenniumtheyhad

alsomanagedtoembeditinaworldwidesystemaccessedbybillionsofpeopleeveryday.

[D]Thisisbecausethenetworkedcomputerhassparkedasecretwarbetween

downloadinganduploading-betweenpassiveconsumptionandactivecreation-whose

outcomewillshapeourcollectivefutureinwayswecanonlybegintoimagine.

[E]Thechallengethecomputermountstotelevisionthusbearslittlesimilaritytoone

formatbeingreplacedbyanotherinthemannerofrecordplayersbeingreplacedbyCD

players.

[F]Onereasonforthepersistenceofthispyramidofproductionisthatforthepast

half-century,muchoftheworld'smediaculturehasbeendefinedbyasinglemedium-

television-andtelevisionisdefinedbydownloading.

[G]Thenetworkedcomputeroffersthefirstchancein50yearstoreversetheflow,to

encouragethoughtfuldownloadingand,evenmoreimportantly,meaningfuluploading.

PartC

Directions：

Readthefollowingtextcarefullyandthentranslatetheunderlinedsegmentsinto

Chinese.YourtranslationshouldbewrittenclearlyonANSWERSHEET2.(10points)

SincethedaysofAristotle,asearchforuniversalprincipleshascharacterizedthe

scientificenterprise.Insomeways,thisquestforcommonalitiesdefinesscience.

Newton'slawsofmotionandDarwinianevolutioneachbindahostofdifferentphenomena

intoasingleexplicatoryframework.

(46)lnphysics,oneapproachtakesthisimpulseforunificationtoitsextreme,and

seeksatheoryofeverything-asinglegenerativeequationforallwesee.ltisbecoming

lessclear,however,thatsuchatheorywouldbeasimplification,giventhedimensions

anduniversesthatitmightentail,nonetheless,unificationofsortsremainsamajorgoal.

Thistendencyinthenaturalscienceshaslongbeenevidentinthesocialsciencestoo.

(47)Here,Darwinismseemstoofferjustificationforitallhumanssharecommonorigins

itseemsreasonabletosupposethatculturaldiversitycouldalsobetracedtomore

constrainedbeginnings.Justasthebewilderingvarietyofhumancourtshipritualsmight

allbeconsideredformsofsexualselection,perhapstheworld'slanguages,music,social

andreligiouscustomsandevenhistoryaregovernedbyuniversalfeatures.(48)Tofilter

outwhatisuniquefromwhatissharedmightenableustounderstandhowcomplex

culturalbehavioraroseandwhatguidesitinevolutionaryorcognitiveterms.

That,atleast,isthehope.Butacomparativestudyoflinguistictraitspublished

onlinetodaysuppliesarealitycheck.RussellGrayattheUniversityofAucklandandhis

colleaguesconsidertheevolutionofgrammarsinthelightoftwopreviousattemptstofind

universalityinlanguage.

ThemostfamousoftheseeffortswasinitiatedbyNoamChomsky,whosuggested

thathumansarebornwithaninnatelanguage-acquisitioncapacitythatdictatesa

universalgrammar.Afewgenerativerulesarethensufficienttounfoldtheentire

fundamentalstructureofalanguage,whichiswhychildrencanlearnitsoquickly.

(49)Thesecond,byJoshuaGreenberg,takesamoreempiricalapproachto

universalityidentifyingtraits(particularlyinwordorder)sharedbymanylanguagewhich

areconsideredtorepresentbiasesthatresultfromcognitiveconstraints

Grayandhiscolleagueshaveputthemtothetestbyexaminingfourfamilytreesthat

betweenthemrepresentmorethan2,000languages.(50)Chomsky'sgrammarshould

showpatternsoflanguagechangethatareindependentofthefamilytreeorthepathway

trackedthroughit.WhereasGreenbergianuniversalitypredictsstrongco-dependencies

betweenparticulartypesofword-orderrelations.Neitherofthesepatternsisborneoutby

theanalysis,suggestingthatthestructuresofthelanguagesarelireage-specificandnot

governedbyuniversals

SectionIIIWriting

PartA

51.Directions：

Someinternationalsstudentsarecomingtoyouruniversity.Writethemanemailin

thenameoftheStudents'Unionto

1)extendyourwelcomeand

2)provideso