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语言学教程之句法1第一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日1.TheStudyofMeaningSemantics:

Themeaningofwords:LexicalsemanticsThemeaningofsentences:Propositionalmeaning,compositionalmeaningLinguisticsemanticsvs.Logicalsemantics/philosophicalsemantics2第二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日2.SemanticMeaningSemanticsisthestudyofmeaninginlanguage.Meaninghasbeenstudiedforthousandsofyearsbyphilosophers,logiciansandthenlinguists.E.g.Laozi(China)Plato&Aristotle(Greek)Ogden&RichardsLeech3第三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Logiciansandphilosophershavetendedtoconcentrateonarestrictedrangeofsentences(typically,statements,or‘propositions’)withinasinglelanguage.Thelinguisticapproachisbroaderinscope,aimingtostudythepropertiesofmeaninginasystematicandobjectiveway,withreferencetoaswidearangeofutterancesandlanguagesaspossible.4第四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日3.ThemeaningofmeaningC.K.Ogden&I.A.Richards(1923).TheMeaningofMeaning.16majorcategories,6sub-categoriesJohnmeanstowrite.Agreenlightmeanstogo.5第五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Healthmeanseverything.Hislookwasfullofmeaning.6第六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Whatisthemeaningoflife?7第七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Whatdoes‘capitalist’

meantoyou?8第八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Whatdoes‘cornea’眼角膜mean?Thetransparent,convex凸面的,anteriorportionoftheouterfibrous纤维的coatoftheeyeballthatcoverstheiris虹膜andthepupilandiscontinuouswiththesclera巩膜.9第九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日GeoffreyLeech(1974,1981).Semantics:TheStudyofMeaning.Seventypesofmeaning:Conceptualmeaning:logical,cognitive,denotativecontentConnotativemeaning:WhatlanguagereferstoSocialmeaning:socialcircumstancesoflanguageuseAffectivemeaning:thefeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker/writerReflectedmeaning:associationwithanothersenseofthesameexpressionCollocativemeaning:AssociationwithwordswhichtendtooccurintheenvironmentofanotherwordThematicmeaning:WhichthemessageisorganizedintermsoforderandemphasisAssociativeMeaning10第十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(1)Conceptualmeaning:thecentralpartAlsocalled‘denotative’or‘cognitive’meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.Cf.reference11第十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(2)ConnotativemeaningConnotationvsdenotation:philosopherHuman:biped,featherless,rationalLeech:someadditional,emotivemeaningPoliticianvsstatesman12第十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(2)ConnotativemeaningThecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.Amultitudeofadditional,non-criterialproperties,includingnotonlyphysicalcharacteristicsbutalsopsychologicalandsocialproperties,aswellastypicalfeatures.13第十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Involvingthe‘realworld’experienceoneassociateswithanexpressionwhenoneusesorhearsit.Unstable:theyvaryconsiderablyaccordingtoculture,historicalperiod,andtheexperienceoftheindividual.Anycharacteristicofthereferent,identifiedsubjectivelyorobjectively,maycontributetotheconnotativemeaningoftheexpressionwhichdenotesit.14第十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日15第十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Stepmother16第十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日17第十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日18第十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(3)SocialmeaningWhatapieceoflanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.Dialect:thelanguageofageographicalregionorofasocialclass.Time:thelanguageofthe18thc.,etc.Province:languageoflaw,ofscience,ofadvertising,etc.Status:polite,colloquial,slang,etc.Modality:languageofmemoranda,lectures,jokes,etc.Singularity:thestyleofDickens,etc.19第十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日domicile:veryformal,officialresidence:formalabode:poetichome:generalsteed:poetichorse:generalnag:slanggee-gee:babylanguage20第二十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日ThefiveclocksbyMartinJoosFrozenFormalConsultativeCasualIntimateFormal<>Informal21第二十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日ThefiveclocksbyMartinJoosFrozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.(贵客立即经楼梯上楼。)Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.(诸位马上从楼梯上楼。)Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?(请大家马上从楼梯上楼,好吗?)Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.(大家现在马上上楼。)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!(伙计们,上楼!)22第二十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(4)AffectivemeaningReflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.You’reavicioustyrantandavillainousreprobate,andIhateyouforit!I’mterriblysorrytointerrupt,butIwonderifyouwouldbesokindastoloweryourvoicesalittle.orWillyoubeltup.23第二十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日‘Colorful’meaningCommendatory

tough-mindedresolute,firmshrewdchildlikewisemanmanofusualtalentportly,stout,solid,plumslender,slimDerogatory

ruthlessobstinatesly,craftychildishwiseguyfreakfleshy,fat,tubbylean,skinny,lanky,weedy,scraggy24第二十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(5)ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice’,youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.25第二十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(6)CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,colour,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.26第二十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日(7)ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.MrsBessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrsBessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.27第二十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日FourwaystoexplainthemeaningofawordPointingtotheobjectDescribeitverballyParaphraseit,Translating(equivalentinotherlanguages)28第二十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日4.TheReferentialTheory:

TheTheoryofReferenceWords→Meaning:Words‘name’or‘referto’things

–PlatonicExplainingthemeaningofawordbypointingtothethingitrefersto:(propernouns,definitenounphrarases)theUSA,theP.R.ChinaThemostinfluentiallinguistNoamChomskyteachesatMIT.29第二十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日TheReferentialTheoryProblems:bird,cup,bowl,deskReal-timething/entityvs.GeneralConceptConcretevs.AbstractMaterialworldvs.metalmindsWords→Concepts→Things:Ogden&Richards:TheMeaningofMeaningConcept:Abstractthing,noexistenceinthematerialworld,sensedinthemind30第三十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日airplane31第三十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日DirectrelationvsMediatingnotionthought/concept/imagesymbolizes

referstosymbolreferent(word)standsfor(object)32第三十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日5.Sense‘Meaning’isnotsomekindof‘entity’separatefromlanguage.Thatwords‘havemeaning’meansonlythattheyareusedinacertainwayinasentence.Thereisno‘meaning’beyondthemeaningofindividualwordsandsentences.33第三十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日LudwigWittgenstein:‘Themeaningofawordisitsuseinthelanguage’.Meaningisstudiedbymakingdetailedanalysesofthewaywordsandsentencesareusedinspecificcontexts.Reference:howlanguagereferstothisexternalworldBetweenaword(alinguisticunit)andathing(non-linguisticunit)Sense:thewaypeoplerelatewordstoeachotherwithintheframeworkoftheirlanguageWiththeintralinguisticrelations34第三十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Thefamilytree(sense,notreference)舅父=‘mother’sbrother’叔叔=‘father’syoungerbrother’伯父=‘father’selderbrother’姨母=‘mother’ssister’姑母=‘father’ssister’35第三十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日6.SenseRelationsSynonymy(sameness)Antonymy(oppositeness)Hyponymy(inclusiveness)GradableComplementaryConverse36第三十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日6.1Synonymybuy/purchase(style)thrifty/economical/stingy(connotation)autumn/fall(dialect)flat/apartment(dialect)tube/underground(dialect)37第三十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日6.2antonymyThreeMainSub-types:GradableantonymyComplementaryantonymyConverseantonymy38第三十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日GradablegoodbadlongshortbigsmallCanbemodifiedbyadverbsofdegreelikevery.Canhavecomparativeforms.Canbeaskedwithhow.39第三十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日

Complementaryantonymyalive:deadmale:femalepresent:absentinnocent:guiltyodd:evenpass:failboy:girlhit:miss40第四十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Converseantonymybuy:selllend:borrowgive:receiveparent:childhusband:wifeteacher:studentabove:belowbefore:afterhost:guestemployer:employee41第四十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日6.2HyponymyInclusivenessAisincludedin/akindofB.Cf.:chairandfurniture,roseandflowerSuperordinate/hypernym:themoregeneraltermFurniture,flowerHyponym:themorespecifictermDesk,roseCo-hyponyms:membersofthesameclassRose,tulip,violet,carnationAuto-Hyponym:asuperordinateisthesuperordinatetoitself.42第四十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日

Animal

birdfishinsectanimal

humananimal

tigerlionelephant...43第四十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日SpecialrelationsAsuperordinatemaybemissing.Adjectiveofthecolourterms:red,green,blueHyponymsmayalsobemissing:Uncle:舅舅,叔叔,姑父,伯伯Rice:稻,谷,米,饭44第四十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日7.ComponentialAnalysisDistinctivefeaturesinphonologySemanticfeatures/semanticcomponentsSmallerthanthewordsBoy(HUMAN,YONG,MALE)Girl(HUMAN,YONG,FEMALE)Binary-unitYong=~ADULTFEMAL=~MALE45第四十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日HUMANman(ADULT,MALE)woman(ADULT,FEMALE)boy(NON-ADULT,MALE)girl(NON-ADULT,FEMALE)46第四十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日7.1Animalwords47第四十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日7.2Domesticanimals48第四十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日7.3Englishmotionverbs49第四十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日7.4MorecomplexonesHowaboutforsomewordswhichinvolvearelationbetweentwoentities?Logicexpressionsfather:PARENT(x,y)&MALE(x)Therearetwopersons(x,y)xisaparentofy,andxismale.y?50第五十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日take:CAUSE(x,(HAVE(x,y)))Therearetwoentities(x,y)xcausesxtohavey.x?y?give:CAUSE(x,(~HAVE(x,y)))xcausesxnottohavey.51第五十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日SynonymousAntonymshyponyms52第五十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.Meaning&SyntacticStructureThemeaningofasentenceisobviouslyrelatedtothemeaningsofthewordsusedinit,butitisalsoobviousthatsentencemeaningisnotsimplythesumtotalofthewords.SNPVNP53第五十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Thecatischasingthemouse.Themouseischasingthecat.Ihavereadthatbook.ThatbookIhaveread.ThedaughterofQueenElizabeth’ssonisthesonofQueenElizabeth’sdaughter.54第五十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.1CompositionalityAnintegratedtheoryKatz&Fodor(1963):Thestructureofasemantictheory.A40longpaperpublishedinLanguage.“Themethoditselfisyearsoutofdatebutthedebateabouttheprincipleofcompositionalityisbynomeansover.”(Cruse,2004:77)55第五十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Theideabehindtheprinciplewastosolvetheproblemofgeneratinggrammaticalbutmeaningless(?)sentenceslike Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously.56第五十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Globalwarmingisafact,andwhiletheword“global”makestheproblemseemsobig,youcanhelp,evenifitis

onasmallscale.Youcanstartinyourownhome,with“greenliving.”VanityFair’sVirtualGreenwebsitegivesgreatgreenideas,roombyroom.Forthekitchen,forexample,

thepeopleat

Virtual

Greensuggestasmart,cute,andeco-friendlystool,the“chiquitastool,”madeofrattanandrecycledsteel.57第五十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日GreenproductGreenbuildingGreenlifeGreenguideGreenearthGreenenvironmentGreenenvironmentalmaterialsGreenenergyGreenbusinessGreenconsumptionGreeninternetserviceGreenagricultureGreenrevolutionGreenOlympicsGreeneconomics58第五十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Accordingtotheprincipleofcompositionality,eachwordinthelexiconisequippedwithcertaincomponentsandcombinationsofwordsintosentencesmustgothroughcertainselectionrestrictionsinordertoproduceacceptablesentences.Thuswecansaycolorfulballbecause59第五十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日colorful{Adj}(Color)[aboundingincontrastorvarietyofbrightcolors]<(PhysicalObject)or(SocialActivity)>(Evaluative)[havingdistinctivecharacter,vividness,orpicturesqueness]<(AestheticObject)or(SocialActivity)>60第六十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日ball{NC}(SocialActivity)(Large)(Assembly)[forthepurposeofsocialdancing](PhysicalObject)[havingglobularshape](PhysicalObject)[solidmissileforprojectionbyengineofwar]61第六十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Thenitispossibletoworkoutfourreadingsofthecombinationsofcolorandball,andfurthercombinationswithotherwords(projections)willdeterminewhichofthefouristheactualmeaninginthesentenceJohnhitthecolorfulballsandWehadacolorfulballlastnight.62第六十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.2NoncompositionalmeaningIdioms:cannotbebuiltupasthesumofitsparts.Idiomsarephrasesderivedbymetaphorandothertypesofsemanticextension.getuponthewrongsideofthebedinthedoghousegreenwithenvykickthebucketfacethemusic

63第六十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日kickthebucket:which?A.Becauseshegotmad,thathenkickedabucket.B.Acartoonpainterabouttokickabucketofpaint.

C.theprocessofdying

64第六十四页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Frozenmetaphors:aclassofidiom-likeexpressionswhichmayshowsomeofthefeaturesofsyntacticfrozennesstypicalofidioms,suchasresistancetomodification,transformation,andsoon,butwhichdifferfromidiomsinanimportantrespect:theeffectofsynonymsubstitutionisnotacompletecollapseofthenon-literalreading.65第六十五页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Theball’sinyourcourtnow.

onyoursideofthenetAcat

canlookataqueen.

mouse

anarchbishopIcanreadherlikeanopenbook.

decipherHehasonefootinthegrave.

bothfeet

tomb

oneleg

coffin66第六十六页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Igavehimapieceofmymind.

part

conceptualsystemHedrivesmeupthewall.

forces

roompartitionHehasabeeinhisbonnetaboutit.

hornet

helmet67第六十七页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.4Collocations68第六十八页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.5Clichés陈词滥调I’vemademypositionabsolutelyclear.I’vegivenanunambiguousexpositionofmyviews.It’srainingdogsandcats.Hearrivedsafeandsound.69第六十九页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.6Nouncompoundspocketknife:knifethatcanbecarriedinthepocketkitchenknife:knifeforuseinthekitchenmeatknife:knifeforcuttingmeattablecloth:clothusedtocoveratabledishcloth:clothusedtowipedishes70第七十页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日8.7“Activezones”aredhat:wholehatisredaredbook:outsidecoversareredaredapple:asignificantportionofouterskinisredayellowpeach:innerfleshisyellowapinkgrapefruit:innerfleshispink71第七十一页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日aredtrafficsign:symbolsonlyareredaredpencil:(1)redonoutside;(2)writesredredeyes:

‘white’ofeyesisredblueeyes:irisisblue72第七十二页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日9.PropositionalLogicTruthcondition:conditionswhichmustholdforthesentencetobeusedtomakeatruestatement(atleastifitisusedliterally).Thus,beforewecantruthfullysay,onsomeoccasion,Thecatisonthemat,theremustbesomerelevantfelineoccupyingaspecificpositionrelativetoanappropriateitemoffloorcovering.

73第七十三页,共八十六页,2022年,8月28日Thoseaspectsofthemeaningofasentencewhichdetermineitstruthconditionsarecollectiv

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