IEF-扩大氢气市场-对话洞察报告（英）-

AnInternationalEnergyForumreportwrittenwithAnne-SophieCorbeau

June2022

Writtenandproducedby:

MasonHamilton

AllysonCutright

Anne-SophieCorbeau

mason.hamilton@

allyson.cutright@

ac5010@

TheInternationalEnergyForum(IEF)istheworld’slargestinternationalenergyorganizationwithmembersfrom71countriesandincludesbothproducingandconsumingnations.TheIEFhasabroadmandatetoexamineallenergyissues,includingoilandgas,cleanandrenewableenergy,sustainability,energytransitions,newtechnologies,datatransparency,andenergyaccess.ThroughtheForumanditsassociatedevents,officials,industryexecutives,andotherexpertsengageinadialogueofincreasingimportancetoglobalenergysecurityandsustainability.

Anne-SophieCorbeauisaGlobalResearchScholarattheCenteronGlobalEnergyPolicyatColumbiaUniversity’sSchoolofInternationalandPublicAffairs.Herresearchfocusesonhydrogenandnaturalgas.Anne-Sophiehasover20yearsofexperienceintheenergyindustryandisarecognizedexpert.Sheistheauthorofmanypublicationsfocusingongas,LNGmarkets,Asia,China,India,andAfrica,includingthebook“LNGmarketsintransition:thegreatreconfiguration”(Oxford,2016).SheisalsoamemberoftheGastechgoverningbody.

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TableofContents

Acknowledgments 3

ExecutiveSummary 4

Hydrogenwillplayakeyroleindecarbonizingtheenergymix,butmassiveinvestmentand

developmentalongthesupplychainareneeded 6

StatusQuo:ANascentandNicheMarket 6

Demandforhydrogentotaled89Mtin2020,contributingtoonly1%oftheenergymix 7

Petroleumrefiningandchemicalprocessesaccountfor96%ofhydrogendemand 7

Chinaproduces/consumes~25%ofhydrogenglobally 8

Non-abatedfossilfuelscurrentlydominatehydrogenproduction 8

Mosthydrogenisproducedon-site 9

Pipelinesandoverlandtransportusednow 10

Storageiscurrentlylimited 10

Pricingisopaque 10

StrengthsandOpportunities:WhyistheHydrogenMarketExpectedtoGrow? 11

Demand–asolutionforhard-to-abatesectorsandasourceofpowersystemsflexibility 11

Hydrogencanofferflexibilityandbestored 12

Highenergydensitypermass 12

Thehydrogeneconomygoesbeyondhydrogen 13

Lessvulnerabletogeopoliticalweaponizationcomparedtotraditionalenergysources 13

Synergywithexistingindustries 13

WeaknessesandThreats:WhatWillLimitHydrogen’sGrowth? 14

Reducingthecostofhydrogen 14

Lowenergydensitypervolume 15

Energy-intensiveproductionandinefficientenergycarrier 15

Lackofexistingdedicatedinfrastructure,carboncapture,andcriticalminerals 17

Publicacceptanceandsafety 18

SolutionsandKeystoSuccess 19

Scaling-upthesupplychain 19

Movingfromlocalizedtoglobalmarkets 19

Low-costorstrandedenergywillhelpgrowproductionhubs 20

Transportationinfrastructurecrucialinmarketscale-up 21

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Storagedevelopmentisneededtobolstersecurityofsupply 21

Internationalpartnerships 22

Datatransparencyneededforinvestorsandpolicymakers 23

HydrogencanborrowfromLNGcontractstructures 23

Pricedeterminationwillevolveandbecomemoretransparent 24

GovernmentSupportMechanisms 25

Policiesshouldsupportbutnotchoosewinners 26

Conclusion:Scaling-upispartoftheproblemandthesolution 27

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Acknowledgments

DiscussionsheldduringtwoexpertpanelworkshopshostedbytheIEFinDecember2021andMarch2022informedthecontentofthisreport.TheauthorswouldliketothanktheIntercontinentalExchange(ICE),particularlyEgbert-JanSchutte-Hiemstra,fortheirsupportandcontributionstotheworkshopsandreport.Theauthorswouldalsoliketothanktheworkshopparticipantsfortheirengagementandfeedback,includingexpertcontributionsfromDr.KirstenWestphal(H2-Global),MarcoChiesa(SNAM),SallyPrickett(bp),JoseMBermudezMenendez(IEA),PatrickHeather(OIES),DariaNochevnik(HydrogenCouncil),RenéSchutte(HyNorth),ErikRakhou(BCG),NeilBrown(KKR),andPetervanEes(ABNAMRO).

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ExecutiveSummary

Whereareweheaded?

•Low-carbonenergysourcesandcarrierswillneedtoreplacehigh-carbononestomeetgrowingenergydemandduringtheenergytransition.Manyenergyforecastsexpecthydrogentoplayavitalroleindecarbonizingtheenergysystem,particularlyinhard-to-abatesectorsorwhereelectrificationisimpossible,suchashigh-temperatureindustrialprocesses,heavyroadtransportation,andshipping.Hydrogenisalsoexpectedtoplayaroleasasourceofflexibilityinthepowersector.

•Thecurrentenergycrisisislikelytoacceleratehydrogenmarketdevelopment.Europequadrupleditslow-carbonhydrogensupplytargetfor2030from5.6Mtpato20.6MtpaaspartofitsREPowerEUstrategytoreducerelianceonRussiannaturalgas.Over500large-scaleprojectshavebeenannouncedinthelastcoupleofyears,and>50%ofthosehavejustbeenannouncedinthepast12months.

•Thehydrogenmarketwilllikelydevelopinseveralphasesandoverseveraldecadesfrom

(1)localpoint-to-pointtransactionsto(2)isolated,bi-lateraltradesto(3)largercontractedinternationaldeliveriesto(4)apotentiallygloballytradedcommodity.Themarketwillmovefromlocalizedtoregionaltointernational/interconnected,butthepaceofdevelopmentwilldifferacrossregionsandsectors.

•However,despiteplayingarole,hydrogenisnota‘silverbullet’forachievingdecarbonizationgoalsorenergysecurity.Inmanycases,itisthesecond-bestsolution.Directelectrificationismoreefficientinmanyapplications.Policiesandbusinessmodelsneedtotargetsupplychainsthatmakethemostsensetechnicallyandfinancially.

Howdowegetthere?

•Thehydrogenmarketisstillinitsinfancy,anddevelopmentisneededalongtheentiresupplychain.Low-carbonhydrogenproductionandutilizationmustincreasefrom~1milliontonsperannum(Mtpa)todaytohundredsofMtpaby2050.Marketgrowthwillinvolveexpansionanddevelopmentinproduction,transportation,storage,andend-use.Scaling-uphydrogenwillrequirenewbusinessmodels,pricing,contracts,regulations,standards,certificates,andpolicies.

•Thefirstimmediatestepwillbetoreplacehydrogenmadebyunabatedfossilfuelswithlow-carbonhydrogen.ThiswillremovethechallengeofcreatingnewdemandwhilereducingCO2emissionsfromunabatedfossilfuelsinhydrogenproduction.

•Hydrogen’shigh-costrelativetoitsalternativesisthemostsignificantobstacletomarketdevelopmenttoday.Costswillneedtodecreasesignificantlyduringthecomingdecade.Productionfromrenewablesiscurrentlyaround$3-8/kg(equivalentto$26-70/mmBtu,LHV).Policysupportiskeytoloweringproductioncostsandincentivizingconsumerstoswitchtohydrogen.Differenttoolswillbeatthedisposalofpolicymakers,includingcontractfordifference,productiontaxcredit,carbonpricing,andcarbonneutralitytargetsforspecificsectors.

•Internationalpartnershipswillbeanessentialcomponentofdevelopingthehydrogeneconomy,providingoff-takecertainty,andenablingscale.Broad-basedcollaborationwithinandacrossindustriesandgovernmentswillbeneededaswellasacommitmentto

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capitalandsharingresourcesandtechnology.Inaddition,partnershipswillhelpfacilitatelong-termcontractsthatwillbekeyinscaling-up,accessingfinancing,andestablishingprovenbusinessmodels.

•Hydrogendevelopmentisprimarilyameanstosupportdecarbonization.Futurehydrogenmarketsandtraderuleswillhavetoconsiderthecarbonintensityofhydrogenandanycarriersorderivatives.Thehydrogenmarketwillbebasedoncarbon-intensityandnot‘color’designations.Therefore,measuringandtrackingcarbonintensityneedstobestandardized,andcorrespondingcertificationsandguaranteesoforiginwillbeessentialelementsenablinginternationaltrade.

•ThereisvalueinstudyingthedevelopmentofbusinessmodelsusedintherenewablesandLNGsectors.Lessonsfromtheevolutionofthesesectorscansupportthescale-upofhydrogenandserveasamodelfortheformationofinitiallong-termcontracts,suchasincludingmodifiedtake-or-paycommitmentstosupportprojects’CAPEXthatareadaptedtothespecificitiesofhydrogendevelopment.

•Despiteparallelsbetweenhydrogenandothermarketdevelopmentpathways(suchasnaturalgas/LNG),regulationshouldnotbesystematicallyimposedinthesameway,especiallyintheearlystages.Thereisstillroomforinnovationinhydrogentechnologyandbusinessmodelsthatover-regulationcouldhinder.Regulationthatis“fitforpurpose”canhelpmitigateriskinherentinanewmarket.Providingregulatorycertaintywillbeessentialtoattractinvestmentearlyon.However,adelicatebalanceisneededtoleveragehydrogenintheenergytransitionbutalsoensurehydrogenbecomescompetitiveandcost-effective.

•Energypoliciesshouldremaintechnology-neutraltoallowacceleratorsthatleveragepublicfinanceratherthancrowditout.Technology-neutralfundingwillhelpenableafastermarketlaunchandlong-termcost-efficientsupply.

•Hydrogenmoleculeshaveanimportantadvantageoverelectrons,theycantransferenergyovertimeanddistancesandbestoredmoreefficiently.Hydrogencanunlockotherwisestrandedenergyassetssuchasremoteandisolatedrenewableenergysites.Itcanconnectplaceswithamplerenewableenergyresourcesbutnoeffectivemeansofdeliveringittomarketwithconcentrateddemandhubs.Infrastructureandtransportationdevelopmentswillbeneededtounlockthesearbitrageopportunities.

•Hydrogenmarketdataiscurrentlylimitedandlacksstandardizeddefinitionsandconventions.Greaterdatatransparencyandstandardizationareneededtoempoweranalysts,investors,andpolicymakerstomakeinformeddecisions.

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Introduction:Jump-StartingtheHydrogenMarket

Hydrogenwillplayakeyroleindecarbonizingtheenergymix,butmassiveinvestmentanddevelopmentalongthesupplychainareneeded

Interestandmomentumsurroundinghydrogenhasgrowninrecentyears,buttheideaofusinghydrogenasanenergycarrierisnotnew–ithascomeinandoutoffashionsincethe1970’s.Yet,despitedecadesofinterestandresearch,therearestillmanyobstaclestoovercomeforthehydrogenmarkettoscale-up.

Currently,hydrogenaccountsforonly~1%oftheenergymix,ispredominatelyproducedusingunabatedfossilfuels,andismainlyusedon-sitewhereitisproduced.

Forhydrogentoplayaroleintheenergytransition,itmustbeavailableinsufficientvolumes,atacompetitivecost,andwithlowcarbonintensityassociatedwithitssupplychain.Theentiresupplychainmustbedevelopedandscaled-up.

Differentdemandforecastscenariosshowhydrogenconsumptiongrowingbyasmuchassix-foldby2050(withlow-carbonhydrogengrowingby500-600-fold).

Suchgrowthmakesitincreasinglyplausiblethathydrogencouldbecomeaninternationallytradedcommodityinthecomingdecades.Understandingthelikelypathwaysanddriversofmaturationisessentialforreducingriskandattractinginvestorandgovernmentbuy-in.

Forhydrogentoachieveitspotential,decisivepolicyactionwillbeneeded,aswellassignificantinfrastructureinvestment,todrivescale.Developinghydrogenwillrequireasignificantdevelopmentofrenewablecapacitybeyondwhatwillbeusedtodecarbonizethepowersector.

Large-scalehydrogennetworkswillbenecessarytoconnectproductionandstorageresourcestoend-users.Scaling-upthesupplychaincanlowersupplycosts,increasesecurity,enablecompetitivemarkets,andfacilitateinternationaltrade.

Thisreportfirstlooksatthecurrenthydrogenmarketandsupplychainandthenexamineswhatwillshapeanddeterminemarketandbusinessmodeldevelopmentundertheassumptionthateconomicsandtechnologyevolvefavorably.Next,thestudyexamineswhatexternalcontractualandregulatorysupportcanhelpguideasuccessfulscale-up.

StatusQuo:ANascentandNicheMarket

Hydrogenisthelightestandmostabundantelementintheuniverse,butitbarelyexistsinapureformonEarth.Instead,itisabundantinchemicalcompounds,mostnotablybondedwithoxygeninwaterorcarbontoformhydrocarbonslikefossilfuels.Forthatreason,hydrogenisnotconsideredanenergysourcebutanenergycarrierorvector.

Onceseparatedfromotherelements,hydrogen’sutilityincreases:itcanbeconvertedintoelectricitythroughfuelcells,itcanbecombustedtoproduceheatorpowerwithoutemittingcarbondioxide,usedasachemicalfeedstock,orasareducingagenttoreduceironorestopureironforsteelproduction.

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Demandforhydrogentotaled89Mtin2020,contributingtoonly1%oftheenergymix

Hydrogendemandhasincreasedby53%overthepast20years,from58milliontons(Mt)in2000to89Mtin2020,amarketworth$150billioni.Mostofthisdemandwasforpurehydrogen(72Mt),with18Mtforhydrogenmixedwithothergassesusedinmethanolandsteelproduction.

Petroleumrefiningandchemicalprocessesaccountfor96%ofhydrogendemand

Petroleumrefiningaccountsforalmost~42%oftotalglobalhydrogendemand.Refiningprocessessuchashydrodesulphurization(removingsulphurfromnaturalgasandrefinedproducts),andhydrocracking(transforminglong-chainhydrocarbonsintoshorterchains).

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Non-fuelchemicalprocessesaccountfor~54%oftotaldemand,withthemajorityusedintheproductionoffertilizerproducts(ammonia)andmethanolproduction.Around4%ofhydrogendemandisusedintheironandsteelindustry.

Asof2022,therearecurrentlynegligibleamountsofhydrogenusedinthetransportsector,withonly50,000FuelCellElectricVehicles(FCEV)intheworld,outofanestimated1.3billionglobalvehiclefleetii.

Chinaproduces/consumes~25%ofhydrogenglobally

China,thelargestconsumerofhydrogeniii,usesthemoleculeinthechemicalindustrytoproduceammoniaandmethanol,andinpetroleumrefining.

IntheUnitedStates,thesecond-largesthydrogenconsumer,thepetroleumrefiningindustryaccountsfortwo-thirdsofhydrogendemandandammoniaproductionaccountsfortheremainder.

TheMiddleEastconsumesover10Mtofhydrogeninpetroleumrefining,chemicalproduction,andsteelproduction.

Indiaconsumedover7Mtofhydrogenin2020,includingaround45%usedforrefining,35%forchemicalsandalmost20%forironandsteel.India,astheworld’slargestproducerofsteelusingtheDirectReducedIron(DRI)route,itaccountsforone-quarterofglobalDRIhydrogendemand.

Non-abatedfossilfuelscurrentlydominatehydrogenproduction

Hydrogenproductionusesvariousmethodsandtechnologiesbutonlytwoprincipalsources,fossilfuelsandrenewablesources.

Currently,>99%ofhydrogenproductioncomesfromthereformingofnaturalgas,coal,oroilproductsandproduces2.5%ofglobalenergy-relatedCO2emissions.

Naturalgas-basedhydrogenproductionrepresentsaround60%oftotalproductionandonlyamarginalamountispairedwithCarbonCaptureUtilizationandStorage(CCUS)technology.Theresultingnaturalgasconsumptionisestimatedataround240Bcm(or6%ofglobalgasdemand).

Meanwhile,coalrepresents19%ofhydrogenproduction,withthemajoritylocatedinChinaandIndia.

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Only0.2%ofglobalproductioncomesfromelectrolysis(usingelectricitytosplithydrogenfromoxygeninwater).

Mosthydrogenisproducedon-site

Around85%ofhydrogeniscaptive,producedandconsumedon-site,mainlyatpetroleumrefineries.iv

Inlimitedoccurrences,hydrogenisproducedelsewhereandtransportedtotheconsumingsite–knownasmerchantproduction.Typically,onepetroleumrefinerywillsellexcesshydrogenproductiontoanearbypetroleumrefineryorchemicalfacility.

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TheEUiscurrentlytheonlyregionintheworldwherehydrogenisregularlytransportedacrossnationalbordersandthisislimitedtotheNorthwestregion(Belgium,France,Germany,andtheNetherlands).Thisisdoneonabusiness-to-businessbasisandprimarilythroughadedicatedhydrogenpipelinenetwork.

Pipelinesandoverlandtransportusednow

Thebulkofmerchanthydrogeniscurrentlytransportedbypipeline.

Therewas~4500kmofhydrogenpipelineintheworldasof2016,with2600kmintheUnitedStatesandaround1600kminEurope(mostlylocatedinBelgium,Germany,France,andtheNetherlands).Therestoftheworldaccountsfor340km,withabouthalfofthisinCanada.

IntheUnitedStates,hydrogenpipelinesareconcentratedintheGulfCoastregionwherelargehydrogenuserssuchasrefineriesandchemicalplantsarelocatedv.Intheseregions,merchanthydrogencanmeetoverathirdoftotalhydrogendemandvi.

Whentransportedoverland,hydrogenistransportedeitherbytruckorbyrailandathighpressureorinliquidform.Liquidtransportisusuallyforshortdistancesorwherethereisnopipelinesystem.

Pureorelementalhydrogencanbecombinedwithotherchemicalelementstoproduce“hydrogen-basedfuels”suchassyntheticmethane,ammonia,andmethanol.Thesecanbesomewhateasiertohandleandtransportthanhydrogenandcanbeusedasfeedstockinindustrialprocesses.

Although,ammoniaiswidelytraded,itismainlyforuseinfertilizermarketsandnotasahydrogenorenergycarrier.

Storageiscurrentlylimited

Thetechnologyofusinggeologicsaltcavernstostorehydrogenisproven;however,thereislimitedpracticalexperiencewithlarge-scalehydrogenstorage.

Currently,hydrogenstorageinsaltcavernsislimitedtoonlyfouroperationalsitesintheUSandtheUKvii.

Existinghydrogenstoragefacilitiesmainlyserveasbackupsuppliesforindustrialhydrogenconsumerswhenhydrogenproductionfacilitiesareundermaintenanceorexperiencedisruptions.

Pricingisopaque

Thereisverylittletransparencyonhowhydrogenispricedtoday,andthereisalotofconfusionbetweenpriceandcosts.Mostdiscussionsarecurrentlyaroundthecurrentandfuturecostofhydrogen,nothowitwillbepricedinthefutureifafull-fledgedmarketisdeveloped.

Withmosthydrogenproducedandconsumedon-siteinmanymarkets,therearefewtransactionalnormsestablishedandlimitedinformationtobeusedinpricediscoveryforaspotmarket.Itislikelythathydrogensupplywillbeinitiallypricedonacost-plusmodel.

Meanwhile,thecostofhydrogenisdependentontheproductiontechnology,thecostofthefeedstock,andpower.Asmosthydrogenproductioncurrentlyusesnaturalgasasafeedstock,thepriceofhydrogenislikelytobehighlycorrelatedwiththepriceofnaturalgasinaparticularmarket.

Whiletransportationandstoragearealsopartofthecurrentcostofhydrogen,thefactthatmosthydrogenisconsumedon-sitemakesitdifficulttounderstandhowthesecostsarereflectedinthepriceofmerchanthydrogen.

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Customersareexpectedtoseeawiderangeofpricedifferencesdependingontheirgeography,deliverymethod,andquantity.

Whiletheproductioncostsofhydrogenareanextremelyimportantvariableinhydrogen’smarketdevelopment,thisreportassumesthattechnologicalimprovementswilleventuallybringhydrogenproductioncostslower,notablythecostofhydrogenmadewithrenewable-poweredelectricitywhichisamagnitudehigherthanthecostofhydrogenmadefromfossilfuels(apartfromhydrogenproductionbasedonnaturalgasinEuropeorcertainAsiancountries).Therefore,thisreportdoesnotexaminehydrogenproductioncostsin-depth.

StrengthsandOpportunities:WhyistheHydrogenMarketExpectedtoGrow?

Demand–asolutionforhard-to-abatesectorsandasourceofpowersystemsflexibility

Thecurrenthydrogenmarketisinitsinfancy,butdecarbonizationeffortswillcreategrowthopportunities.

Themostattractiveapplicationsforhydrogenuptakeareinhardtoabatesectors,wheredirectelectrificationisdifficult,uneconomic,ortechnicallyunfeasible.Theseincludesteelandcementmaking,chemicals,high-temperatureheatinindustry,dispatchableelectricitygenerationbeyondafewdays,aviation,shipping,andheavy-dutytransport.

Additionally,low-carbonhydrogenwillneedtoreplacehydrogenproducedfromunabatedfossilfuels,whichiscurrentlyusedinsectorssuchaspetroleumrefining,chemicalindustry,andfertilizerproduction.

However,becausethesizeandscaleofhydrogenadoptionbyeachoftheseindustriescanandwillvary,hydrogendemandforecastsvarysignificantly.

Asurveyofcurrentforecastsshowsagapof418Mtpabetweenthelowandhighoutlooksin2050(excludingBloombergNEF’soutlierGreenscenariowhichputshydrogendemandabove1,300Mtpain2050).Thisgapismorethan4.5timesgreaterthanthecurrentmarketsize.

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Interestinhydrogenhasacceleratedinthepastfiveyearsasdecarbonizationtargetshavemovedtothetopofgovernmentpriorities.Morethan50countrieshavedeveloped,orareintheprocessofdeveloping,anationalhydrogenstrategy.

TheEUhasquadrupleditslow-carbonhydrogensupplytargetfor2030from5.6millionmetrictonsperannum(Mtpa)to20.6Mtpa,aspartofitsREPowerEUstrategytoreducerelianceonRussiannaturalgas.

Over500large-scaleprojectshavebeenannouncedinthelastcoupleofyearsand>50%ofthosehavejustbeenannouncedinthepast12months(asofApril2022).

Therearemanyambitioustargets,butitisnotclearhowtheywillbeachieved.Uptakeanddemandstimulationwillbeneededtoreachthesegoalsandmarketdevelopmentprogress.

Hydrogencanofferflexibilityandbestored

Hydrogenmoleculeshaveflexibilityandstorabilitythatcancomplementandbalanceintermittentrenewableenergysourcesviii.

Unlikebatterystorage,hydrogencanbetransportedoverlongdistances,andstoredundergroundalmostindefinitelywithminimalenergycontentlossovertimeix–idealforgrid-scalelong-durationstorage.Theuseofsaltcavernstostorehydrogenisalreadyaproventechnology,whiletheuseofdepletedfieldsremainstobeproven.

Ascountriesincreasetheirshareofrenewables,flexibilityrequirementswillincreaseonaweeklytoannualhorizon.Hydrogen,aswellassyntheticgas(madefromhydrogen),canplayasignificantroleinmeetinglonger-termflexibilityneedsofthepowersystem.

Hydrogencanbeusedtomitigatetheseasonalvariationsofrenewableproductionagainstelectricitydemand:astheworldelectrifies,higherhydrogenproductionthroughexcessrenewableelectricityduringoneseasoncanbeusedtomeethigherelectricitydemandduringanotherseasonwhenrenewablesareinsufficienttomeetdemand.

Hydrogencanbeusedtounlock“stranded”renewableenergyassets,suchasthoseinremote,off-gridlocations,withlittletonoaccesstoasuitablemarketormeansoflong-distanceelectricaltransmission.Theserenewableenergyassetscangenerateelectricitywhichisthenusedinelectrolysistoproducehydrogen.Thishydrogencanthenbestored,transported,andshippedfromtheseremotelocationstomarket.Storagewillbeparticularlyimportantinhelpinghydrogentoplayitsroleasasourceofflexibilityinpowersystems.

Hydrogencanalsobestoredinlargequantitiestoserveasastrategicreservewithmultipleend-useapplications.Thiscanhelpbolsterenergysecurityandmitigateenergypricevolatilityandenergycrises.

Highenergydensitypermass

Hydrogenhasasignificantlyhigherenergydensitypermassthananyotherenergysource.Onekilogramofhydrogencontainsasignificantamountofenergy,makingitanefficientandlightweightenergycarrier.Therefore,hydrogenisattractiveintransportapplicationswherelargeamountsofenergyarerequiredatminimalweightsuchasaviation,shipping,andlong-distancetrucking.

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Thehydrogeneconomygoesbeyondhydrogen

Whiletalkingaboutthehydrogeneconomy,itisimportanttounderstandthatthisconceptgoesbeyondpurehydrogen.Italsoincludesotherenergycarriersbasedonhydrogensuchasammonia,methanol,aswellassyntheticmethane,whichareeasiertotransport.

AmmoniacouldbeusedinshippingandiscurrentlybeingtestedinJapaninthepowersectormixedwithcoa