语言和文化英语典故的文化来源

毕业论文(设计)PAGEPAGEiAcknowledgementsIwishtoexpressmythanksandappreciationtomytutor,Mrs.DengLiping,whosecarefulreading,consideration,patienceandsuggestionshavebeeninvaluabletomethroughoutmythesiswriting.MythanksshouldalsobegiventoalltheteacherswhohavetaughtmemyBAcoursesinthepastfouryears.Withouttheirenthusiasmandsupport,thisworkwouldnothavebeenpossible.Iamalsogratefultomyclassmatesandroommatesfortheirpsychologicalsupportandencouragement.Lastbutnotleast,Iwouldliketoexpressmythankstoourschoolanddepartmentforprovidingmewithsomanyreferencesinthelibraryandthereferenceroom.AbstractLanguageandculturehavecloserelationship:cultureinfluencesthedevelopmentoflanguage,whilelanguageisthecarrierofculture.Tosomeextent,allusioncouldbesaidtobetheessenceoflanguage.Asoneofthemostimportantpartsoflanguage,allusionhasagreatimpactonthewesternworldfrompolitics,economy,culture,andtechnologytoeveryaspectofpeople’slife,especiallyonpeople’sdailyutterance.ToEnglishspeakers,allusionhasintangiblygrabbedintopeople’sutterance.Toanon-Englishspeaker,ifheknowslittleaboutEnglishallusions,hemayfailincommunicatingwithforeigners,thoughhehasgoodpronunciationandalargenumberofvocabularies.ThisthesisstudiesEnglishallusionsfromthefollowingchiefculturalsources:thefirstoneisGreekandRomanmythology;thesecondoneisfamousliterature,includingtheBible,Shakespeare’splaysandAesop’sfables.IllustrationisthemainmethodforstudyingEnglishallusionsinthisthesis.KeyWords:languageandcultureEnglishallusionsculturalsources摘要语言与文化有着密切的关系：文化影响语言的发展，语言是文化的载体。在某种程度上，典故可以说是语言的本质。典故作为语言的一个重要组成部分，对整个西方世界影响巨大，从政治、经济、文化、科技到人们生活的各个方面，尤其是对人们日常生活用语的影响。对于英语母语使用者而言，典故已经在无形中渗透到他们的日常生活用语。如果一个非英语语种的人对英语典故了解甚少，那么即使他或她有很好的发音，很大的词汇量，在与外国人的交际中，也有可能导致交际失败。本文从以下几个方面粗略地学习了英语典故：第一：希腊罗马神话；第二：文献巨著，包括《圣经》，莎士比亚的作品以及伊索寓言。本文主要采用举例说明的方法来学习与探讨英语典故。关键词：语言与文化英语典故文化来源ContentsAcknowledgements……………………..……………iAbstract(English)………………..…...iiAbstract(Chinese)……………………..……………..iii1.Introduction……………………12.Allusion,languageandculture…………………22.1Thedefinitionofallusion……………………22.2Thedefinitionoflanguage………………….22.3Thedefinitionandmajorcomponentsofculture……………32.4Therelationshipamongallusion,languageandculture…….43.ThespecificstudyofEnglishallusionsfromchiefculturalaspects…………….43.1GreekandRomanmythology……………….43.1.1Mythologyallusioninliteraryworks………………….53.1.2MythologyallusioninEnglishvocabulariesandphrases……………..63.1.3Mythologyallusioningeographicalnames…………...83.1.4Mythologyallusioninthescientificfield…………………83.1.5Mythologyallusioninnamesofdaysoftheweek.………93.2Worksofliterature……………..103.2.1TheBible……………..Figurativemeaningsfromcharacters…………...Figurativemeaningsfromanimalsandplants…..Figurativereasonsfromobjects………………...14Figurativereasonsfromevents…………………143.2.2Shakespeare’splays……………………..153.2.3ThefablesofAesop……………………...164.Conclusion…………17References………………….……….……………….19毕业论文(设计)PAGEPAGE1TheStudyofEnglishAllusionsfromChiefCulturalSources1.IntroductionAllusionsinspeakingandwritingarereferencedtowell-knownpersonalities,things,oreventsthatspeakersorwritersassumetobefamiliartolistenersorreaders.However,thisassumptionisbasedontheknowledgeorbeliefthatpeoplehavesomehistoricalculturalunderstanding.Studentsofforeignlanguagesdonothavetheadvantageofthiscommonunderstanding.Theyareoftenpuzzledbytheseallusions.Tothem,itisnotonlyaquestionofunderstandinganallusionandknowingwhatitmeans,butalsoaquestionofknowingwhatkindofallusionsislikelytomake.ThisthesisstudiesthechiefculturalsourcesofEnglishallusionsandexplainshowallusionsservetosignificance,ideasanddescriptions.Englishallusionscomefromsourcesthatarefamiliartothemajorityofpeopleortheeducated.ThesesourcesrangefromGreekandRomanmythology,thestoriesfromtheBible,andShakespeare’splaystoAesop’sfables.Therearesomeallusionseasytounderstand,whilethereareothersdifficulttofigureout.Thefollowingexamplecontainsanallusion:ThatexpectationcouldprovetobetheAchilles’heeloftheproject.(Net.4)IfreadershavenoideaofwhatAchilles’heelis,thisallusionmeansnothingtothem,andtheycouldnotunderstandwhatthewriterwantstoexpress.Tofullyunderstandthisallusion,wehavetoknowAchilles’storyfromGreekmythology.Achilles’mothertookhimbytheheelanddippedhimintheriverStyxtomakehiminvulnerablefromdeath,buttheheelbywhichsheheldhimremaineddry.Hisheelbecamehisweakness.Itwastheplacewherehecouldbekilled.WhenonealludestoAchilles’heelinsomeoneorsomething,itmeansthatthereisaweaknessinthatpersonorthing.Therefore,ifonewantstofullyunderstandEnglishallusions,itisnecessaryandimportanttostudythemfromchiefculturalsources.2.Allusion,languageandculture2.1ThedefinitionofallusionTherearelotsofallusionsinEnglish,whichrevealstherichculturalheritageofEnglish.Ithelpspeoplefromdifferentcountriescommunicateandunderstandeachothermoreeasily,sotheycanuseEnglishallusionsproperlyininterculturalcommunication.“Allusionisanimpliedorindirectreference,especially,whenusedinliterature”(Net.3).Allusionissomethingthatissaidorwrittenthatreferstoormentionsanotherpersonorsubjectinanindirectway(OxfordADVANCEDLEARNER'SEnglish-ChineseDictionary,2004:45).Sofar,aconclusioncanbedrawnthatallusionispersons,eventsorvocabulariesquotedfromlegends,tales,customs,religious,famousliteraryworksandcorrectlifewhenpeoplespeakingorwriting.2.2ThedefinitionoflanguageItisdifficulttoanswerthisquestionwhenoneisasked“whatislanguage”.Heorshemaybehesitatingtogivethefollowing:(1)Languageisameansofcommunication;(2)Languagehasaform-meaningcorrespondence;(3)Languageisawayofexchanginginformation;……Thestatementsabovearenotcomprehensiveortheyarejustaboutlanguagebutnotthedefinitionoflanguage.OxfordADVANCEDLEARNER'SEnglish-ChineseDictionary(2004:979)offersseveralmostfrequentlyusedsensesoftheword“language”:(1)Thesystemofcommunicationinspeechandwritingthatisusedbypeopleofaparticularcountry;(2)Theusebyhumansofasystemofsoundsandwordstocommunicate;(3)Aparticularstyleofspeakingorwriting;(4)Awayofexpressingideasandfeelingusingmovementsymbolsandsounds.2.3ThedefinitionandmajorcomponentsofcultureCultureisthecustomsandbriefs,art,wayoflifeandsocialorganizationofaparticularcountryorgroup;itisart,music,literature,thoughtofagroup;itisthebriefsandattitudesaboutsomethingthatpeopleinaparticulargroupororganizationshare(OxfordADVANCEDLEARNER'SEnglish-ChineseDictionary,2004:412).Inbrief,cultureisthetotalwayoflifeofaparticularcountryorgroup.Fromthedefinitionabove,itcanbeconcludedthatthemajorcomponentsofcultureconsistofthematerialandthenon-material.Thematerialcomprisescity,organization,school,etc,whilethenon-materialcomprisesthoughts,habits,beliefs,languages,etc.2.4Therelationshipamongallusion,languageandcultureAllusionisoneofthemostimportantpartsofsociallanguageandculture.Inotherwords,itistheessenceoflanguage.ItisdifficulttounderstandEnglishallusions,especiallytousethemproperly.Languageandculturehaveacloserelationship.Languageistheproductofcultureandcultureisthesourceoflanguage.Languageandculturecomplementeachother.Foronething,languageisagreatimportantpartofculture;foranother,languageisthecarrierofculture.Thereisnolanguagethatdoesnotcompriseculturalfactorsandreflectsculture.Thereisnoexistenceanddevelopmentofculturewithoutlanguage.Meanwhile,languageislimitedbyculture.Eachcountryornationalityorgrouphasitsownculture.Becauselanguageandculturearenotseparable,differentcultureshavedifferentlanguages.ThiscanbeillustratedbythespellingofBritishandAmericanEnglish,suchas“metre”and“meter”.Inaword,theyareindispensabletoeach.3.ThespecificstudyofEnglishallusionsfromchiefculturalsources3.1GreekandRomanmythologyGreekandRomanmythologyprovideEnglishwithrichsourcesofallusions.ThehistoryofGreekandRomanmythologystoriesandlegendshasrunalongcoursefromaremotesource.AndGreekandRomanmythologystoriesandlegendsarerichincontentanddiversifiedinform.GreekandRomanmythologyisthemostpopularonethatisquotedasallusionsinEnglish.ThelanguagesofGreekandRomanbelongtoIndo-Europeanlanguages，sotheyhavegreatinfluenceonthiskindoflanguages’nationalculture.EnglishhasbeeninfluencedgreatlyasitisoneofthemajorlanguagesofIndo-Europeanlanguages.AgreatnumberofthesemythologiesarespreadbymeansofEnglishliteratureworksandbecometypicalEnglishallusions.ThesemythologiescanbefoundeasilyintheworksofmodernwriterslikeShakespeare,ChaucerandMilton.3.1.1MythologyallusioninliteraryworksStudentsofEnglishasaforeignlanguage(EFL)areacquaintedwithmanyofthemasterpiecesofEnglishandAmericanliterature.Theyarerequiredtoreadtheoriginalworksinfull.ItmeansthatstudentsofEFLshouldbeabletoidentifyliteraryallusionsofthistypetoacertainextent.MostofworkswrittenbyShakespeare,SwiftandMarkTwainandbygreatpoetslikeMiltonandWordsworthcontainagreatnumberofallusions.Belowareexamplescontainingallusionsinsomeliteraryworks:(1)Soexcellentaking:thatwas,tothisHyperiontoaSatyr:solovingtomymotherThathemightnotbetweenthewindsofheavenVisitherfacetooroughly.(Shakespeare,Hamlet,I)Here,Hyperionwasagoodgod.HewasthefatherofJupiterinRomanmythology,whileSatyrwasamonsterinwildforest.HamlettookhisfatherasHyperionandtookhisuncleasSatyr,becausehisunclekilledhisfather,becamethekingandmarriedhismother.HeexpressedhisfeelingvividlybyusingthesetwonamesinRomanmythology.(2)ThishopefulyoungpersonsoaredintosoPleasingaCupidtoconstitutetheChiefdelightofthematernalpartofThespectators.(C.Dickens,HardTime,Book2,chap.1)Cupidwasahandsomeboywhohadtwowingsandwasarmedwithagoldbowandanarrow.Hewaswiseandthoughthighlyofloveandsincerity.HewasperfectinGreekmythology.Dickensusedsuchaperfectgodtoexpresstheimageheportrayed.3.1.2MythologyallusioninvocabulariesandphrasesEnglishallusionsinvocabulariesandphrasesfrommythologyholdagreatpercentbecauseofGreekandRomanculture’sprofoundimpactonEuropeanculture.Belowareexamplescontainingallusionsinvocabulariesandphrases:(1)Thismoney,whichseemedsohelpful,turnedouttobeaPandora’sBox.Pandora’sBox:asourceofcountlesstroublesonceopened.Itimpliesapresentorsomethingthatseemsvaluable,however,bringstroublesandmisfortune.InGreekmythology,Pandorawasthefirstwomanwhowassenttotheearthbygodsasapunishment.PandorawasgivenaboxbyZeusandtoldnevertoopenit.Outofcuriosity,sheopenedthebox.Asaresult,alltheevilsflewoutandthencausedtroublestomankind.(2)ThatprojectisaHerculeantask;however,heissoconfidentthathebelieveshecanmanagetodoit.AHerculeantask:thetaskwhichrequiresgreatpowerofthebodyorthemind.Itimpliesanythingthatisdifficulttocarryout.HerculeanwasapowerfulheroinGreekmythology.Hewaspunishedtofinishtwelveextremelyhardtasks.Hesucceededtodoitandthenwasrewardedasgod.(3)Thecriminalshavebeencaughtandputintoprison.Buttheleaderhasescapedwithgunsandexplosives.ThisfacthungliketheswordofDamoclesoverthepolicemen.ADamoclessword:forth-comingdanger.DamoclesservedunderDionysius,akingwhoruledoverSyracuse.Damocleslovedwealthandalifeofpleasure.Heenviedhislord’slife.Hepraisedhislordgreatlyandshowedhisenvyonce.SoDionysiusinvitedhimtoadinner.ButtherewasaswordtiedbyasinglehairoverDamocles’head.Hewasafraidduringthedinner.Dionysiuswantedtoshowhowdangeroushislifecouldbe.Therearestillmanyvocabulariesandphrasescontainingallusions,forexample:Troyhorse:anenemyfromwithin.June:derivedfromthegoddessofJuno.March:derivedfromthegodofwar,Mars.Musicandmuseum:derivedfromthegoddess,Muse.3.1.3MythologyallusioningeographicalnamesThereareplentyofgeographicalnamesrelatedtoGreekandRomanmythology.TakeEuropeforinstance,it’snamedfromGreekmythology.EuropewasaprincesswhowasabductedandcarriedoffbyabulltoCrete.Infact,thebullwasZeus,thekingofthegodsinGreekmythology.AndthenshewastakentotheEuropeancontinent.Thus,Europewasnamedfromthis.Belowareexamplescontainingallusionsingeographicalnames:Paris:thecapitalofFrench.PariswasthesonofthekingofTroy.InGreekmythology,hefellinlovewiththemostbeautifulwoman,Helen.HetookherbacktoTroy,whichwasthecauseoftheTrojanWar.AtlanticOcean:Atlantiswasamythicalisland,whichisnowtheAtlanticOcean.Athens:thecapitalcityofGreece.ItsnamecomesfromAthena,agoddessinGreekmythology.Inadditiontothesenames,therearestillagreatnumberofgeographicalnamesthatcontainallusions,suchasAmazonRiverinAfrica,AegeanSeainGreecePeninsula3.1.4MythologyallusioninthescientificfieldGreekandRomanmythologyareshiningnotonlyinliteratureandartworks,butalsointhescientificfield.Itisbelievedthatgodhasvastmagicandunmatchedpowers.Therefore,militarystrategists,scientistsandstatesmenofallegemakegooduseofGreekandRomanmythicalcharactersinordertogivemagicpowertotheirweapons,techniquesandequipment.TakeApolloforexample,itwastheAmericanspaceshuttlewhichlandedonthemoonin1969andnamedfromthegodofthesuninGreekmythology.AndNike,missileofAmerican,wasnamedfromthegoddessofvictory.Therearemanyacademicnamesandtermsfromnamesofgods.Forinstance,Mars,thefourthplanetfromthesun,wastheRomangodofwar;Jupiter,thelargestplanetinthesolarsystem,wasthegodoftheskyandthekingoftheRomangods.Inthechemicalfield,therearesomechemicalelementsnamedaccordingtogods.Forexample,UraniumisnamedfromRomanmythologicalgodofheavens,Uranus;MercuryisnamedfromthemessengeroftheRomangods.Mercurywasalsothegodofcommerceandscience.3.1.5MythologyallusioninnamesofdaysoftheweekTherearesevendaysinoneweek,includingMonday,Tuesday,Wednesday,Thursday,Friday,SaturdayandSunday.Thesenamesarefamiliartoeveryone,fortheyareusedeveryday.However,nearlynooneknowsthatsomeofthemcontainallusionsfrommythology,especiallyfromGreekandRomanmythology.Belowareallusionsinrelationtothesenamesfromthesemythologies:Tuesday:namedfromTyr,whoistheNorsegodofwarandisfamousforhisbravery.Wednesday:namedfromWoden,whoisthemostpowerfulofgodsinAnglo-Saxonmythology.Thursday:namedfromThor,whoistheNorsegodofThunder.Friday:namedfromFreya,whoisthegoddessofmusic.Saturday:namedfromSaturn,whoistheRomangodofagriculture.3.2WorksofliteratureAllusioninliteraryworksisalmosttheessenceofeverylanguage.ManyEnglishallusionsarespreadbymeansofliteraryworks.3.2.1TheBibleIndailyutterance,EnglishandAmericansoftensay“Godblessyou”,“myGod”,“goodGod”,“Godforefend”,etc.,whichcomefromtheBible.TheytakethegodofChristiansastheiridolandthecontrollerofnature.Theyshowtheirsinceritytogodbysaying“God”indailylife.TheBibleisarichsourceofallusions.AllusionsfromtheBiblearewidelyacceptedandbecomedailyutterance.TheseallusionsendowfigurativemeaningsorreasonsfromcharactersintheBibletostandforakindofperson,orfromanimalsorplantstoshowspecificmeaningsinaparticularenvironment.Meanwhile,objectsandeventsintheBibleareusedtoexpressfigurativereasons.Allusionhasacloserelationwithculture.Asreligionisakindofculture,ithasgreatimpactonlanguage.InEnglish-speakingcountries,Christianityisthedominantreligion.TheBibleistheclassicsofChristianityandaremarkableliteraryworksaswell.FrenchwriterHugooncesaidthattherearetwobooksinEngland,oneistheBible,theotherisShakespeare;itisEnglandwhobroughtupShakespeare.However,whocreatedEnglandistheBible（WangBingqin，1995:58）.TheBiblehasanenormousinfluenceonthewesternworld,probingnotonlyintoliteraryandartworks,butalsoinpolitics,economy,technology,commerce,diplomacy,etc.WiththespreadingofChristianity,theBibleisknowntoeveryhouseholdinthewesternworld.Itistakenasbackgroundknowledgeinnumerousliteraryworksandallusionsfromitareusedtoconstructworks’mainthemes.FigurativemeaningsfromcharactersNumerouscharactersintheBiblehavetheirownimages,disposition,beliefandexperience,andhavebecometypicalrepresentativesafterbeingwidelyreadandquotedforalongtime,especiallytoChristians.Belowaresomeexamplescontainingthiskindofallusions:(1)=1\*GB3①HeisaJob’spost.=2\*GB3②IamaspoorasJob,however,notsopatient.=3\*GB3③MyteacherwasaspatientasJob,andneverbecomeimpatientovermystupidity.Itisnotdifficulttofindthatthereisoneword“Job”ineverysentence.IfonedoesnotknowwhoJobisorwhatorwhomJoblikes,hemaybeconfusedbythesethreesentences.JobisonecharacterintheBible.Hewasamanofgreatpatience.HemanagedtofinishalltheworkthatGodsubjectedhimbyenduringitpatiently.Althoughhewasveryrich,helivedinpovertyandsimplicity.TherearemanyallusionswithJob,suchas“Job’snews”thatmeansbadnews,“Job’spost”whichmeansdisastermessenger,“aspoorasJob”thatmeanspoorandblank,“aspatientasJob”thatmeanshavinggreatpatience.(2)HisbehaviortowardshiswifeturnedouttobeJudaskiss.Judaswasatraitor.HewasoneofthetwelveapostlesofJesusChrist.ItisrecordedthatJudasbetrayedJesustotheJewishpriestsforthirtypiecesofsilver.“Judaskiss”or“thekissofJudas”meanshoneyinmouth,dangerinheart,whichseemedaffectionatebutactuallyinsidious.(3)HeisnoSolomon.Idonotbelievehecanmanagetodoitintime.Solomonwasaverywiseman;hewasthekingoftheHebrewsaroundthe10thcentury,B.C.,andwasnotedforhiswisdom.“AswiseasSolomon”meansverywise,while“noSolomon”meansstupidorfoolish.Besidesthecharactersillustratedabove,therearestillmanycharactersintheBiblewhostandforsomefigurativemeanings.BelowisthelistofsomecharactersfromtheBible:Adam:thefirstmanonearth,createdfromdustorearth.Eve:thefirstwoman,createdfromoneofAdam’sribs.Satan:leaderofrebelliousangels,drivenfromHeaven(Paradise,GardenofEden)toHell.CainandAbel:thefirstandthesecondsonsofAdam.CainkilledAbelinafitofjealous.TheGoodSamaritan:onewhohelpsothersindistress.FigurativemeaningsfromanimalsandplantsSomeanimalsandplantsmentionedintheBiblehavetypicalmeaningsinspecificenvironment.Belowistheexamplecontainingthiskindofallusion:Theybecomenervousbecausetheyhaveeatentheforbiddenfruit.Ifonedoesnotknowthemeaningof“theforbiddenfruit”,hecannotfigureoutthat“theybecomenervousbecausetheyhavedonesomethingwrong”.“Theforbiddenfruit”isthefruitfromthetreeofknowledge.AdamandEveweretoldbygodnottoeattheforbiddenfruit,buttheydisobeyed.Thepunishmentofthisbehaviorwasinheritedbyallhumanbeings.Also,therearesomephrasesandsentencesthatcontainanimalsintheBible.Quotedbyhumanbeingsforalongtime,theyhavebecomeallusions.Belowaresomeexamples:Thedangerisundoubtedlyalionintheway;youcangoaheadorturnback.That’salldepends.Whatwillyoudo?“Alionintheway”comesfrom“theslothfulmansaith,thereisalionintheway;alionisinthestreet”intheBible.(Net.2)Thisphrasemeansdifficultiesorobstaclesinimaginationbutnotreality.TherearestillanimalsorplantsthatcontainallusionsintheBible,suchas“figleaf”and“castthepearlsbeforeswine”.“Figleaf”istheleavesthatareusedtocoverthehiddenplaces.AdamandEveopenedtheireyesandfoundtheywerenakedwhentheycametotheearth.Sotheysewedfigleavestogetherandmadecoveringforthem.“Castthepearlsbeforeswine”meanstooffergoodthingstooneincapableofappreciatingit.ItcomesfromtheBible“givennotthatwhichisholyuntothedogs,neithercastyourpearlsbeforeswine,lesttheytramplethemundertheirfeet,andturnagainandrendyou”.FigurativereasonsSomeobjectsfromtheBiblehavetheirownmeaningsunderparticularenvironment.(1)IfwetrytoimplementtheseharebrainedideasthatEnglishshouldbereplacedbyHindiandthe15RecognizedStatelanguages,IndiawillbecomeaTowerofBabe“ATowerofBabel”meansaplacewherepeoplespokeindifferentlanguagesandnoonecouldunderstandeachother.Onlyhavingthisbackgroundknowledge,onecancomprehendthemeaningof“IndiawillbecomeaTower(2)Heacceptedthirtypiecesofsilverandmadeuphismindtodoitassoonaspossible.“Thirtypiecesofsilver”comesfromastoryintheBiblethatJudasbetrayedJesustotheJewishpriestsforthirtypiecesofsilver.Itmeansmoneyorotherrewardforanactofbetrayal.FigurativereasonsTherearelotsofhistoricalstoriesintheBiblethatrecordimportanteventsanddescribemanyimaginarywarcircumstancesinordertoconveytheGod’sordersofwarningtheworld.(1)Butnotadecadeago,tensofmillionsofAmericans,includingmanywhoshouldhaveknowbetter,wereinthegripofanationalanxietyattackaboutnuclearapocalypse.(Net.6)Ifonedoesnotknowwhatapocalypseis,hemaynotunderstandwhymanyAmericansbecameextremelyanxious.AccordingtotheBible,apocalypseisaprophesiedeventofgreatupheaval,ofcosmicdestruction,whenGoddestroyedtheearthlykingdomsofevilandtookhisbelieverstoheavenonJudgmentDay.(2)WhatlookslikeGenesistolawyerslookslikeArmageddontoinsurancecompanies.“ThismoldProblemseemedtocomeoutofnowhere,”saysJanetBachman,vice-presidentofclaimsadministrationfortheAmericanInsuranceAssociation……Shesaystherehasbeena137percentincreasesofarthisyearintheamountpaidoutbyinsurancecompaniesforwaterdamage.(Net.5)IfoneknowswhatGenesisandArmageddonare,therearenotcomprehensiveproblemstothispassage.IntheBible,Genesisisthecreationoftheuniverseanditsinhabitants.Nowitistheoriginofanything.Armageddonisthesiteofthelastbattlebetweentheforcesofgoodandevil.3.2.2Shakespeare’splaysManyEnglishallusionsinvolveeventsorcharactersfromliteraryworks,especiallyfromShakespeare’splays.ItissaidthatShakespeareisthewriterwhocitesallusionsmostly.Andhisplaysarecommonlycited,thoughhisplayswerewrittenoverthreehundredyearsago.AnumberofcharactersfromShakespeare’sworksstandfordifferentkindsofpersons.InEnglish,ifoneiscalledRomeo(characterfromShakespeare’sRomeoandJuliet),itimpliesthatheisahandsomeyoungmanwhoispassionatewithwomen.BelowaresomefamouscharactersthatstandforakindofpersonfromShakespeare’splays:Shylock(characterfromShakespeare’sTheMerchantofVenice):cruel,greedyandmoney-grappingperson,whowillgotonoendstoacquirewealth.Cleopatra(characterfromShakespeare’sAntonyandCleopatra):awomanofoutstandingbeauty.Shestandsforthebeautifulwomen.Hamlet(characterfromShakespeare’sHamlet):apersonwhofindsitishardtodecideandact.Also,therearesomesentencesfromShakespearewhichareoftenquotedbynativeEnglishspeakers,suchas“forgiveandforget”,“that’sallGreektome”,“all’swellthatendswell”,“allisnotgoldthatglitters”and“discretionisthebetterpartofvalor”.3.2.3ThefThefablesofAesopareverypopulararoundtheworld.Theycontainprofoundmeaningsandinfluencethewesternculturewidely.Asarule,allusionsofthistypeareeasyenoughtoidentify,butsometimesthesignificanceishardertounderstandwhenallusions