战略过程-概念、情境、案例（第4版）（工商管理经典教材·英文影印版）

战略过程一概念、情境、案例

(第4版)

(工商管理经典教材•英文影印版)

CHAPTER1:STRATEGIES

MINTZBERG,"FIVEPSFORSTRATEGY"

SummaryofReading

Strategyhasbeendefinedinoneway,butusedimplicitlyindifferentways.Mostpeopledefine

strategyasaplan:aconsciouslyintendedcourseofaction.Plansaremadeinadvanceoftheactionsto

whichtheyapply,andtheyaredevelopedconsciouslyandpurposefully.Strategycanalsobeaploy:a

manoeuvreintendedtooutwitanopponentorcompetitor.Butdefiningstrategyasaplanisnot

sufficient;weneedadefinitionthatencompassestheresultingbehaviour.Strategymaybeapattern;a

streamofaction.Bythisdefinition,strategyisconsistencyinbehaviour,whetherornotintended.Even

thoughfewpeoplewoulddefinestrategythisway,manyseematonetimeoranotheruseitinthisway.

Thefourthdefinitionisthatstrategyisaposition,i.e.,ameansoflocatinganorganizationinwhat

organizationtheoristsliketocallan"environment."Thisdefinitioniscompatiblewithalltheothers;a

positionmaybepre-selectedandsoughtthroughaplan,oritmaybereachedorfoundthroughapattern

ofbehaviour.Eventhoughmostpositionaldefinitionsarebasedontheideaofcompetition,thisview

maybebasedontheachievementofanyviableposition,whetherornotdirectlycompetitive.Strategy

asapositionhasrecentlybeenextendedtoCollectivestrategy,i.e.,cooperationbetweenorganizations.

Finally,strategyisaperspective,itscontentconsistingnotjustofachosenposition,butalsoofan

ingrainedwayofperceivingtheworld.Inthisview,strategyistotheorganizationwhatpersonalityis

totheindividual.Itsuggeststhatstrategyisaconcept,thatallstrategiesareabstractions,whichexist

onlyinthemindsofinterestedparties.Whatisofkeyimportancehereisthattheperspectiveisshared.

Plansandpatternsmaybeindependent:plansmaygounrealized;patternsmayappearwithout

preconception.Wherepreviousintentionsarerealized,wehavedeliberatestrategies.Wherepatterns

developedintheabsenceofintentions,wehaveemergentstrategies.Purelydeliberateorpurely

emergentstrategiesareprobablyrare.Moststrategiesprobablysitonacontinuumbetweenthetwo

(frommostdeliberatetomostemergent):

Planned:centrally-formulatedintentionsarepreciselystated,implementedusingformalcontrols,and

theenvironmentisbenignorcontrollable;

Entrepreneurial:intentionsarethepersonalandunarticulatedvisionofasingleleader,whopersonally

controlstheorganization,whichisinaprotectedenvironmentalniche;

Ideological:intentionsarethecollectivevisionoftheorganization'smembers,controlledthrough

sharednorms;theorganizationisactivevis-a-vistheenvironment;

Umbrella:organization'smembersmustactwithinboundariesdefinedbyleadership,andstrategiesare

partlydeliberateandpartlyemergent,or"deliberatelyemergent”;

Process:leadershipcontrolsprocessofstrategy(e.g.,recruitment,structure),leavesstrategycontentto

others,andstrategiesarepartlydeliberate,partlyemergent,ordeliberatelyemergent;

Disconnected:patternsintheirownactionsaredevelopedbylooselycoupledmembersorsubunits,

whetherornotcentralintentionsexist;

Consensus:membersconverge,usingmutualadjustment,onpatternsthatpervadetheorganization

eventhoughcentralorcommonintentionsdon'texist;

Imposed:theexternalenvironmentdictatespatternsinactions,eitherthroughdirectimpositionorby

boundingchoice.

Strategyaspositionandperspectivecanbecombinedwithstrategyasplanandpattern.Perspective

maybeaplan,oritmaygiverisetoplans.Patternsmayberecognizedandgiverisetoformalplans,

perhapswithinanoverallperspective.Perspectivesprobablyarisefromlongstandingpatterns.Change

inperspectiveisdifficult,butchangewithinaperspectiveisrelativelyeasy.Peopleoftenlabel

importantthings“strategy“andthedetails“tactics”.Butitisoftenwrongtodoso,becausedetailsare

important.Itmaybebettertotalkaboutshadesof“strategic."Nosingledefinitiontakesprecedence

overtheothers.Theycompete,buttheyalsocomplement.Eachaddsimportantelementstoour

understandingofstrategy.Plandealswithhowleaderssetdirectionandalsodealswithhowintentions

forminthehumanbrain.Ploytakesusintotherealmofdirectcompetition;theuseofthreatsandfeints

togainadvantage.Forstrategyaspatternthefocusisonaction,butalsoontheachievementof

consistencyinthataction;thisencouragesustoconsiderthenotionthatstrategiescanemergeaswell

asbedeliberate.Positionencouragesustolookatorganizationsintheircompetitiveenvironments,

enablingustothinkoforganizationsinecologicalterms(i.e.,organismsseekingprotectedniches).

Strategyisnotjustanotionofhowtodealwithanenemyorasetofcompetitorsoramarket.Itdraws

usintosomefundamentalissuesaboutorganizationsasinstrumentsforcollectiveperceptionandaction.

Theuseofvariousdefinitionsenrichesourabilitytounderstandandmanagetheprocessesbywhich

strategiesform.

DiscussionOuestions

7.Isittrulypossibleforafirmtohaveastrategyintheabsenceofintention?

Thisquestionisintendedtostimulatediscussion.Itdoesnothaveaclearlyrightorclearlywrong

answer.Forsomefinals,itwouldnotbelikelythatstrategieswouldexistintheabsenceofintention.

Thebestexampleswouldprobablybeutilities.Toagreatextent,theabsenceofintentionwouldbe

unlikelyformostmachineorganizationsanddivisionalizedfirms.Thesekindsoforganizationsare

large,andstandardizationisanintegralpartoftheirfunctioning.Also,theytypicallyfacestable

environments.Thesefactorsmakeplanning(i.e.,theformationofintentionspriortoaction)more

feasible,andsometimesevennecessary.Othertypesoforganizations,notablyinnovativeones,also

knownasadhocracies,oftenplungerightintoaction,withoutthepriordevelopmentofintentions.Any

kindoffirmthatfacesanuncertainanddynamicenvironmentisagoodcandidateforstrategyforming,

outofapatternofaction,withoutpreconceivedintentions.Inlarger,complexorganizations,thereare

oftensubunitsthatactwithoutanyexplicitsetofintentionsfromuppermanagement.Patternsemerge

fromtheiractivities;thesesubunitstrategiesmaylaterbeadoptedbytheparentorganization.Hence,

eveninlargeorganizations,itispossibleforstrategiestoformintheabsenceofintention.

2.Areplansandpatternsindependent,atleastintheory?Whataboutinpractice?

Intheory,plansandpatternsmaybeindependent.Forexample,aneworganizationdevelopingaplan

maynothaveanypreviouspatternonwhichtodraw.Theplanisindeedbeingdonefromscratch.This

wouldalsobetrueforadhocplansdrawnupbyorganizationalcommittees.Patternscertainlymay

developwithoutanypriorintention-developing,i.e.,planning.Manyembryoniccompanieswouldstart

workingwithoutfullyplanningtheiractions.Butinmanypracticalcircumstances,plansandpatterns

wouldbelinked.Manyorganizationsthatdecidetodostrategicplanningbringalotofhistorical

baggagewiththem;inotherwords,theyhaveformedpatterns,whichinfluencethewaytheyapproach

theplanningtask.Onecouldarguethatpartoftheinternalanalysis,whichisusuallydoneinstrategic

planning,isaformofidentifyingpatterns,someofwhichhaveworked,someofwhichhavenot.Andit

iscertainlypossible,thoughnotascommonasisthought,thatplansultimatelyshapepatternsofaction.

3.Whatisthedifferencebetweenumbrellastrategyandprocessstrategy?

Thesetwotypesofstrategiesaresimilarinthattheybothare"deliberatelyemergent”,i.e.,thedetails

ofstrategiesareallowedtoemergewithinparticularboundaries.Theydifferinthewayinwhichthese

boundariesareset.Forumbrellastrategies,theleadershiparticulatestheboundaries,andthese

boundariesarewidelypublicizedandknownwithintheorganization.Oneofthebestexamplesis3M

Corporation'srequirementthat25%ofsalesmustcomefromproductsdevelopedwithinthepastfive

years.Forprocessstrategies,theboundariesmaynotbewidelycirculatedbytheleadership.Instead,

organizationalprocesses(recruitment,promotion,structure)aremanipulatedinsuchawaythat

strategicactivitystayswithinboundaries.

4.Whatisthedifferencebetweenideologicalstrategyandstrategyasperspective?

Theyareverysimilar.Strategyasperspectivecouldbetheworldviewofanindividual,butitismore

likelytorefertoaningrainedwayofviewingtheworldforacollectiveofpeople.Ideologicalstrategy

istheactiveseekingofthatcollectiveworldview.Ittriestoachieveacollectivevisionbymeansof

stronglysharednorms,whichMintzbergcallsideology.Inotherwords,thepursuitofanideological

strategy,usingsharednorms,isdesignedtocreateastrategicperspectiveamongthemembersoflarge

organizations.Butastrategicperspectivemayariseoutofexperiencesthatarenotsodependenton

ideology.

5.Mintzbergsaysthatthedistinctionbetweenstrategyandtacticsisdangerous.Whatisyouropinion

onthis?

Thisquestionisdesignedtostimulatediscussion.Somestudentsmaydisagree,sayingthatstrategyis

definitelymoreimportantthantactics.Theymaysaythatthebigpictureiswhattopmanagement

shouldstress,andothersshouldworkoutthatdetails.Excessiveattentiontodetailsiswhatcausestop

managerstofritterawaytheirtimewhilethewholeorganizationdrifts.Otherstudentsmayagreewith

Mintzberg.Theymayarguethattopmanagerswhoneglectdetailsdonothaveanyrawexperiences

uponwhichtodrawfromwhentheyaretryingtocomeupwithstrategicideas.Inotherwords,they

havenothinguponwhichtobuildaperspective.Theydon'tevenhaveagoodknowledgebaseupon

whichtoplan.Theysimplydon'thaveanintimateknowledgeofthebusiness.

6.Theauthorsaysthatitpaystomanagethedetailsandletthestrategiesemerge.Whatisyour

opinion?

Thisquestionisdesignedtostimulatediscussion.Manystudentswilldisagreewiththisstatement.

Theywillarguethatstrategyistooimportanttojustletitemerge.Thesewillbethestudentswho

stronglybelieveinplanning.Theywillwanttoseeamoreactive,formulativeapproachundertakenby

topmanagement.Otherstudentswillagreewiththeauthor.Theywillarguethatinmany(perhapsmost)

industries,itissimplynotpossiblefortopmanagementtoknowwhatwillneedtobedone.Theywill

alsoarguethatinnovationisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Bothofthesefactorsmakecentralized

planninglessattractiveandlesseffective.Adaptationandinnovationarefacilitatedthroughtheuseof

umbrella,process,andconsensusstrategies,whicharetheformsofstrategywherestrategycontent

detailsareallowedtoemerge.

7.TheauthorquotesRumeltassayingthatstrategymeansseekinganadvantageousposition,whether

ornotdirectlycompetitive.Whatdoyouthinkofthis?

Thisquestionisdesignedtostimulatediscussion.Moststudentsthinkofhead-to-headactionwhenthey

hearthewordcompetition.Thediscussioninthispartofthearticleimpliesthatstrategymayinvolve

lessofthatandmuchmoreofanavoidanceofcompetition.Agreatdealofstrategytheorytalksabout

thecreationofstrongpositionsthatdetercompetition,e.g.,Miles'sandSnow'sDefenderstrategy,or

Porter*sCostLeadershipstrategy.Anotherareaofheavydiscussionintheliteratureistheseekingout

ofprotectedniches,e.g.,Miles'sandSnow'sProspectorstrategy,orPorter'sFocusstrategy.The

questionisaimedatgettingstudentstorealizethateventhoughcompetitiveforcesareconstantlybeing

trained,theorganizationstrategistsoftentrytopositiontheorganizationtododge,andnotconfront,

thesethreats.

8.Ifstrategyasperspectivemustbebasedonsharedperspective,inwhatkindsoforganizationsmight

itbeuseful?

Sharedperspectiverequires,almostbydefinition,thattherebemanypeopleintheorganization,sothat

therearepeopletodothesharing.Thisimpliesthatstrategy,asperspective,islikelierinmediumand

largeorganizations.Therearemajorwell-knownexamples:HewlettPackard,IBM,Sony,Apple

Computer.Theseorganizationsspendalotofenergyandresourcesgettingtheirpeopleindoctrinatedin

thepropernorms.Thisisnottosaythatstrategy,asperspective,can'thavearoleinsmaller

organizations.Perspectivedoesn'tcomeonlyfromindoctrination.Sharedexperiencescanalsobethe

rootofsharedperspective.Onekindofstrategythatencouragessharedexperienceisconsensus

strategy,wherestrategiccontentemergesovertimethroughmutualadjustment.Thesmall

organizationsthatarelikelytouseconsensusstrategycouldthereforedevelopasharedperspective.Of

course,theexperiencesofanindividualwillshapehisorherindividualworldview.Insimplestructures,

orentrepreneurialorganizations,strategyisthevisionoftheleader.Thisvisionwillcertainlybe

influencedbyhisorherworldview.So,strategyasperspectiveisaconceptalsoapplicabletothe

smallestoforganizations.

9.InwhatwaysarethefivePsofstrategyrelated?Doestheauthor'sanswertothismakesense?Are

thereotherwaysthattheyfittogether?

Thesecondandthirdsub-questionsaredesignedtostimulatediscussion.Mintzbergarguesthatthe

conventionalhierarchyofthestrategydefinitionsisthatperspectivegivesrisetoplans,whichposition

theorganizationandallowthemtocreatepatternsintheiractions.Anotherscenariohasthepatternor

positionleadingtoplans,i.e.,theformalizationofemergentstrategyallhappenswithinagiven

perspective.Athirdcombinationhasthepatternorpositionproducingaparticularperspective.Thelast

possibilitymentionedbytheauthorisperspectiveconstrainingchangesinposition,i.e.,the

organizationrepositionsitselffromPointAtoPointB,whicharebothwithinitsworldview,whenit

shouldmovefromPointAtoPointX,thelatterbeingoutsidetheorganization'sworldview.(The

authorgivestheexampleoftheEggMeMuffin;positionchanged,butitwasstillwellwithin

McDonald'sfast-foodworldview.)

PORTER,6tWHATISSTRATEGY?5

SummarvofReading

Thisreadingtiestothefollowingstatementinitsdiscussionofstrategybytheforemostthinkerinthe

"positioningschool":"Strategyisthecreationofauniqueandvaluableposition,involvingadifferent

[tocompetitors]setofactivities...fitisabout]creatingfitamongacompany'sactivities^^(pp.1-19,1-

22).Porteraddsameasureofsophisticationtothewell-establishedpositioningschoolbyemphasizing

asystemsorconfigurationviewofpositioning.Suchaviewfocusesonthe(mutually-reinforcing)

interdependenciesbetweenactivitiesnecessarytosupportaparticularpositionoverthelong-term.Thus,

organizationalstructure,systems,andprocessesneedtobestrategy-specific.Portermakesthreekey

pointstosupportthiselaborationofthepositioningviewofstrategy.

First,strategyshouldbedistinguishedfrom^operationaleffectiveness.,,Strategyinvolvesactivities

thatdeliverauniquevaluepropositionoverthelongterm,therebyestablishingdifferencesthatafirm

canpreservevisavisitsrivals.Whileconsiderablegainsflowfromoperationaleffectiveness(which

denotesdoingindividuallywellinthemanyactivitiesbywhichafirmtransformsitsinputs),good

strategyeffectivelytranslatesthesethroughasuperiorcombinationofsustainableandsuperior

profitabilitybylinkingthemtothedeliveryofasuperiormixofvalueforthecustomer.

Thesecondpointfollowsfromthis:strategyisaboutbeingdifferent,andthisisachievedthrough

deliberatelychoosingadistinctiveandmutuallyreinforcingsetofactivitiestailoredtoaposition.That

is,theappropriatechoiceofanactivitysetforthefirmwillbeconditionedbyoptimizingacrossthree

basicssourcesofstrategicpositioning:variety-based(ducingasubsetoftheindustry9sproducts

orservices);needs-based(i.e.servingmostoralloftheneedsofaparticulargroupofcustomers);and

accessibility-based(i.e.reachingcustomersinaparticularway).

Thirdly,strategyrequirestrade-offsinordertoachievefit:notpursuingsomeactivitieswhich,in

isolation,couldbeviewedasavalue-creating,butareincompatiblewiththebroadersetofactivitiesfor

reasonsofcontradiction(internallyorinthemindsofcustomers)orduetolimitsoncoordinationand

control.Forasuperiorstrategy,choicesofactivitieswillbeexceptionsto,ratherthannormalpractices

within,anindustry;therefore,afirmwillneedtobemakingexceptionalchoicesacrossmanyactivities

(seetheSouthwestexamplediscussedbyPorter).Threetypesof(nonmutually-exclusive)fitidentified

byPorterwillalreadybeevidentfromthepreviousparagraphs,inascendingorderoftheirpowerto

contributetosustainability.Theseare:simpleconsistencybetweeneachactivityandtheoverall

strategy;activitiesthataremutuallyreinforcing;andoptimization.Thereadingdrawsonanextended

discussionofSouthwestAirlinesinadvancingitskeypoints.

DiscussionOuestions

1.Doesthereadingofferacoherentaccountofcompetitiveadvantage?

Withitsclearfocusoncreatingvalueinhard-to-imitateways,thereadingclearlyaddressescompetitive

advantage.Furthermore,thecentralnotionoffitamongactivities,andoftheresultingactivitysystem

andpositionsetsoutacoherentrangeofobjectivesandactionsthatmangerscanpursueinseekingto

buildcompetitiveadvantage.

2.Whatdoestheauthorhavetosayaboutthelimitabilityofstrategy?Howpersuasivedoyoufindhis

argument?

Porteremphasizesthatimitationismadedifficult,orevenimpossible,bytheneedtoimitate

simultaneouslyacrossmanydimensions(sothatyouhaveaneffectivecombination).Thecomplexity

ofcause-effectrelations,trade-offs,andcomplementaritiesmakesanyactivitysystem(andespeciallya

superiorone)verydifficulttocopy.However,thereisaproblemwiththisargument;howtoexplain

whyinnovationofanactivitysystemcanbeprofitable,whereasimitationisnot?Clearly,whentrying

toaccountforthepossibilitiesofimitationweneedtoaddressbarriersotherthancomplexity(ofthe

activitysystem),suchasresourcerequirementorinter-firmrelationships.

3.Doesthereadingofferusefulinsightsintohowtodealwithchange?

Theanswertothisquestioncanusefullyberelatedtodiscussionoftheconfigurationschoolof

strategy-makinginthesubsequentreading.Whenactivitiesfittightlytogetherinasystem,theycanbe

expectedtohaveahighinertialcomponent,becausechangeinanyactivitythreatenstointroduce

inconsistencyintothesystem.Onlysmallchangesarelikelytobeeasilyaccommodated.Majorchange

instrategywillrequirechangingmanyoftheactivitiesatonce.Porter,however,haslittletosayon

howtodothiswhilestayinginbusiness.

MINTZBERG&LAMPEL,"REFLECTINGONTHESTRATEGYPROCESS^^

SummaryofReading

Theauthorsaddresshowtheprocessofmakingstrategyshouldbethoughtabout,andhowithasbeen

thoughtaboutandtaughtby,scholarsofstrategy.Theyidentify10strategy“schools“andgroupthese

intotwocategories.Thedesign,planning,andpositioningschoolsareallprescriptiveaseach

emphasizeshowstrategiesshouldbeformulatedandseektospecifyanidealwayofmakingstrategy.

ThedesignschoolseesSWOTanalysisastheheartofstrategy-making:strategyastopmanagement's

conceptionoftheproperfitbetweentheorganization'sstrengthsandweaknessesanditsenvironment's

threatsandopportunities.Theplanningschooldevelopedamoreformalversionofthedesignschool,

withanalysiscarriedoutbyprofessionalplannersgeneratingastrategytobeadoptedbytop

management.Thepositioningschooldrewonindustrial-organizationeconomicsandmilitarystrategy

toemphasizestrategy-makingasthespecificationof(five)forcesshapingeveryindustrystructureand

topmanagement'schoosingoneofafewgenericpositionsasaresultofthisanalysis.

Thedescriptivecategorycontainsthesixschoolsthatdealwithdifferingviewsofhowstrategic

thinkingactuallygetsdone.Theseschoolsareconcernedlesswithprescribingidealstrategic

behaviourthanwithdescribinghowstrategiesdoinfactgetmade.Theentrepreneurialschool

emphasizesthecharacteristicsofthecreativeleaderanddescribesstrategy-makingasaprocessflowing

fromthisvisionaryindividual;thecognitiveschoolalsofocusesontheindividualbutemphasizesthe

leader'smentalprocessesandseekstoexplainhowthe"mentalmaps”,thatconstitutestrategy,get

formed.Whilebothoftheseschoolsimplystrategyasaprocessthatemergesfromindividualvisioning

andcopingefforts,thelearningschooldescribesstrategy-makingasanorganizationally-based(rather

thanindividual-based)processemergingfromthepiecemealeffortsofmanyorganizationplayerssuch

thattheorganization"muddlesthrough/9Nextcomesthepowerschool,whichemphasizes

organizationalpolitics,anddescribesstrategy-makingasaprocessofnegotiation,groundedonsuch

phenomenaasempirebuildingandcoalitions."Holdpoweruptothemirroranditsreverseimageis

culture”(pl-27).Theculturalschoolfocusesoncommoninterestsandintegration(asopposedtothe

individualinterestsandfragmentationofthepowerschool)anddescribesstrategy-makingasa

collectiveprocessgroundedonsuchphenomenaasorganizationalmythsandideologyandthe

uniquenessofanygivenfirm'sprocesses.Whereastheculturalschoolcanbedescribedasaninside-out

approachtostrategy-making,theenvironmentalschoolcontendsthatitistheenvironmentwhichdoes

thechoosinginstrategy,forthoseorganizationsunsuitedtoenvironmentareselectedoutofexistence.

Finally,theconfigurationschoolcanbesaidtoconstituteitsowncategory,seekingtointegratethe

insightsofalloftheotherschools.Itdescribesstrategy-makingintermsofdistinct"idealtypes"ie,

distinctclustersofcircumstances(e.g.unchangingenvironment),structure(e.g.hierarchical),andstyle

ofbehaviour(e.g.formalized)makeoneformofstrategy-makingmoreappropriatethananother.Inthe

notionalclusterjustdescribed,aprescriptiveprocesswouldbelikely.Theseconfigurationswillremain

stableforconsiderableperiodsoftime.Gradually,however,inconsistencybuildsintheconfiguration

(e.g.newanddynamiccompetitorsappear);theneedforchangemaybebesthandledbychanging

manyelementsatonce,i.e.,“leaping”toanewconfiguration.Astheauthorsconcludeintheirbook­

lengthversion(withBruceAhistrand)ofthisreading,"Strategyformationisjudgmentaldesigning,

intuitivevisioning,andemergentlearning;itisabouttransformationaswellasperpetuation;itmust

involveindividualcognitionandsocialinteraction,co-operationaswellasconflict;ithastoinclude

analyzingbeforeandprogrammingafter,aswellasnegotiatingduring,andallofthismustbein

responsetowhatcanbeademandingenvironment.^^(Strategysafari:Aguidedtourthroughthewilds

ofstrategicmanagement,1998,pp.372&373).Extractsfromthisbookareincludedinchapters6and

7;the"configurationschooF,isfurtherelaboratedintheMintzbergreadingchapter8,andinparticular

detailintheMintzbergreadingsthatopeneachofchapters13-18.

DiscussionOuestions

7.Identifysomebroadcharacteristicsforagoodstrategysysteminanycompany.

Wecanthinkofthisintermsoftwobroadcriteria:thosemakingthestrategygetgoodinformation

personally,makingaleapwithinformationinsomeconceptualsense.Front-linerworkersareoften

betteratthefirst,seniormanagerbetteratthesecond,andmiddlemanagerstendtotiethetwotogether.

Goodstrategy-makingwilllikelyrequireatremendousamountofcommunicationandinteraction

aroundideasandpossibilitiesbetweenalloftheseplayers.Sometimesstrategyisgenius

(entrepreneurialschool),butfrequentlyit'smullingthingsaroundovertime(learningschool)until

finallythemarkethitsyouoverthehead(environmentalschool)andyoustarttorealizewhatyouhave

todo(prescriptivecategory).

2.Supposeafirmhassettledonagoodstrategy.Howlongcanoneexpectittolast?

Nothinggetsdone,orthingsgetdonebadly,ifstrategyisconstantlybeingputintoquestion.Mostof

thetime,organizationssimplypursuestrategiesthatarewellestablishedandworking.Occasionally,

theyhavetoputthemintoquestion,andthafsthetimetogetintoaniterativeprocessformulatingand

implementingandbacktoformulatingtoarriveatsomethingelsethat'sgoingtowork.

3.Howsimpleshouldastrategyhe?

Sometimesvery,verysimpleindeed,oratleastthearticulationoftheessenceissimple.Thefull

strategyisusuallyveryelaborateandcomplex.Butsomesenseofhowthefirmispositionedinthe

marketplacecanberathersimple.Forexample,anairlinesuchasLufthansahasafairlysimplemarket

positionintermsofthecategoriesofcustomeritservesandwhereandhowitprovidesservicetothem.

4.Howuniqueshouldastrategybe?

Theprescriptive-categoryschools,andespeciallythepositioningschool,emphasizetheuniquecontent

(ermsoftargetmarket)ofastrategy.However,consistentwithwhatthedescriptive-category

schoolsargue,wecansaythatit'snottheuniquenessofthestrategysomuchastheexecutionthat

reallysetsafirmapart,thatcompetitorsarelikelytofinditmuchmoredifficulttoimitatehowa

superiorfirmworksthatwhatthatfirmdoes.Thusthegreatfirmismorelikelytobeonethatdoes

ordinarythingsinbrilliantways.

5.Whydoyouthinktherehavesomanydifferentschoolsofstrategy-making?

Differentschoolshavedominatedatdifferenttimes.Eachschoolisareflectionofaparticular

perspectiveandisoftengroundedonverydifferentkeypremises.Eachschoolleveragesandis

constrainedbytheattributesofthesocietyandhistoricalcontextofwhereandwhenitoriginated.So,

contextualfactors,suchaswartimeexperiencewithlarge-scalelogisticsplanningandpopularizationof

thecase-studymethodinbusiness