国际劳工组织报告：疫情下的亚洲服装行业趋势（EN）

ChainsAsia

DecentWorkin

GarmentSupply

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector

Dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

Copyright©InternationalLabourOrganization2022

Firstpublished2022

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PrintedinThailand

ii

XContents

Listoffigures

iii

Listoftables

iv

Acknowledgements

v

Abbreviations

vi

Executivesummary

vii

X1.Introduction

1.1.Dataandapproach

1.2.IsAsiastillthegarmentfactoryoftheworld?

1.3.HowimportantisthegarmentsectorforAsianeconomies?

X2.MappingtheAsianGTFsector

2.1.GSCsandtheirimplicationsforthesector’semployment

2.2.Foreigndirectinvestment

2.3.Spatialconcentration

X3.GTFemploymentstructurebycountry

3.1.GTFsub-sectorshareinemploymentandexports

3.2.Employmentbyfactorysize

3.3.Employmentbystatus

3.4.Workingarrangements

3.5.Informalemployment

X4.WagesandlabourproductivityinAsia’sGTFsector

4.1.WagesandlabourproductivitylinkagesintheGTFsector

4.2.Adynamicperspective:Structuralchange,wageandproductivitygrowth

X5.Womeningarments:Doingmoreforless

X6.Industrialrelationsinachallengingenvironment

X7.Concludingremarks

References

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AnnexTable1SpatialconcentrationofGTFfactoriesandemployment

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AnnexTable2FormalandinformalemploymentintheGTFsector,bycategory

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AnnexTable3ChangeinwageandsalariedshareinemploymentintheGTFsector,byworkingarrangement

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AnnexTable4CompoundannualgrowthratesofexportsandemploymentbyGTFsub-sector

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XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofworkiii

XFigures

Figure1Asia’sshareinglobalGTFexports,2000-19

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Figure2ImportanceoftheGTFsectorforselectedAsianeconomies

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Figure3EmploymentintheGTFsectoracrossAsia(millionsofworkers)

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Figure4Ownershipoflargesupplierfactoriesbycountry,2017-18

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Figure5SpatialconcentrationofGTFemploymentinselectedcountries

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Figure6Sub-sectorshareinGTFexportsandemploymentbycountry

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Figure7Distributionofemploymentbyenterprise(factory)sizeintheGTFsector

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Figure8Shareofwageandsalariedworkersinemployment,andofcasualworkersinwageemploymentintheGTFsector

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Figure9WageandsalariedworkershareinemploymentbyGTFsub-sector17Figure10Employmentsharesofemployeesbyfactorysize,home-basedworkers,contributingfamilyworkersandown-accountworkersinfivegarmentexportingcountries.18Figure11InformalemploymentamongwageandsalariedworkersintheGTFsector19Figure12Realgrossvalueaddedperworkerandrealaveragemonthlywages(2010US$)23Figure13Averagemonthlynominalwages(currentUS$)23Figure14Minimum,meanandmedianmonthlywagesinPPP$24Figure15Changeinemploymentsharesacrosssub-sectors(percentagepoints)27Figure16LabourproductivitygrowthintheGTFsector28Figure17Compoundannualgrowthratesofrealwagesandofrealvalueaddedperworker(percentages).30Figure18Changeinwageandsalariedworkersharesinemployment,GTFsectorandsub-sectors(percentagepoints)31Figure19FemaleshareinemploymentintheGTFandoverallmanufacturingsectors(percentages)33Figure20GenderpaygapsintheGTFsector(percentages)34Figure21LowpayrateintheGTFsector,bysexandcountry35

ivXEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

XTables

Table1LabourproductivityandGTFtomanufacturingandGTFtoagricultureproductivity

ratios–latestyearavailable22

Table2Compoundannualgrowthratesofexports,grossvalueaddedandemploymentby

sub-sector26

Table3Compoundannualgrowthratesofrealaveragemonthlywagesofemployees,GTFand

sub-sectors(percentages)29

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofworkv

XAcknowledgements

ThisreportwaspreparedbySouleimaElAchkarHilalfortheInternationalLabourOrganizationRegionalOfficeforAsiaandthePacific.TheauthorisgratefultoILOcolleaguesSaraAndersson,PhuHyunh,JohnRitchotteandDavidWilliamsforguidanceandcommentsonanearlierdraft,andtoDanielKostzerandMariaJoaoVasquezfortheirvaluableinsights.ThereportwaseditedbyIanBarnesandlayoutproducedbyMontyChanthapanya.

vi

XAbbreviations

ADB

AsianDevelopmentBank

AGR

agriculture,fishingandforestry

BGD

Bangladesh

CHN

China

COVID-19

NovelCoronavirusDisease

EPZ

exportprocessingzone

FDI

foreigndirectinvestment

GDP

grossdomesticproduct

GSC

globalsupplychain

GTF

garment,textilesandfootwear

GVA

grossvalueadded

IDN

Indonesia

IFC

InternationalFinanceCorporation

IFS

InternationalFinancialStatistics

ILO

InternationalLabourOrganization

IMF

InternationalMonetaryFund

IND

India

ISIC

InternationalStandardClassificationofAllEconomicActivities

KHM

Cambodia

L&F

leatherandfootwear

LFS

labourforcesurvey

LKA

SriLanka

MFA

Multi-fibrearrangement

MMR

Myanmar

MNF

manufacturing

MVA

manufacturingvalueadded

MYS

Malaysia

NSO

NationalStatisticalOffice

OSH

occupationalsafetyandhealth

PAK

Pakistan

PHL

Philippines

PPP

purchasingpowerparity

RMG

readymadegarment

SME

smallandmedium-sizedenterprise

THA

Thailand

TXT

textiles

UK

UnitedKingdom

UN

UnitedNations

US

UnitedStates

US$

UnitedStatesDollar

VNM

VietNam

WAP

wearingapparel

WDI

WorldDevelopmentIndicators

WTO

WorldTradeOrganization

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofworkvii

XExecutivesummary

TheAsianregionisstillthemaingarmentmanufactureroftheworld.In2019,theregionaccountedforapproximately55percentofglobaltextilesandclothingexports.Thegarment,textilesandfootwear(GTF)sectorsremainakeycontributortoAsianeconomies,providingemploymentforapproximately60millionworkersintheregion,andindirectemploymentformillionsmore.Thesectorisatacrossroads,challengedbyconverginglabourcosts,potentialdisruptionthroughproductionandprocessautomation,‘reshoring’and‘nearshoring’,andincreasedpressuretotransitiontowardsamoresustainablebusinessmodel,withimprovedwagesandworkingconditions.TheNovelCoronavirus(COVID-19)crisismayhaveacceleratedsomeofthesetrends.Atthiscriticaljuncture,thisreporttakesstockofemployment,wagesandlabourproductivitytrendsoverthe2010-19period,toinformpoliciesandpracticesaimedatsafeguardingandexpandingdecentworkopportunitiesinAsia’sGTFsector.

Inthelastthreedecades,thestructureofemploymentintheAsiangarmentsectorhasbecomeincreasinglyorganizedaroundglobalsupplychains(GSCs).GarmentGSCsarebuyer-drivenandledbymultinationalenterprises(MNEs)oftenpromotingthe‘fast-fashion’businessmodel.Thesupplierlandscapeiscomplex,multi-layeredandcompetitive,involvingcontractorsandsubcontractorsspanningacrosstheformalandinformalsectors.Asianexportersgenerallycompeteatthelower-endoftheglobalgarmentvaluechain,whichprimarilyinvolveslow-skilled,lowvalue-addedCut-Make-Trim(CMT)activities.Manygarmentmanufacturers,particularlysmallandmedium-sizedenterprises(SMEs)inlowertiersofthesupplychains,facehighlevelsofuncertainty,areunderalotofpressuretoreduce‘lead-times’,operateontightmargins,andareunabletoinvestinproductivityenhancement.TheseGSCdynamicsmakesuppliersresortto‘flexible’workarrangementsliketemporaryandhome-basedworkers,andresultinsignificantdownwardpressuresonwagesandworkingconditions.Theseeffectsarecompoundedbycriticalinstitutionalfactors,namelyweakgovernmentcapacityforregulationandenforcement,conflictualindustrialrelationsandlowlevelsofcollectivebargaining.

WhilelabourproductivityinAsia’sGTFsectorhasincreasedinmanyeconomies,itremainsrelativelylow,asfewcountrieshavesuccessfullymovedupthevalue-addedchain.Dataanalysedinthisreportconfirmtheexistenceofapositiveassociationbetweenlabourproductivitygrowthandwagegrowthinthesector.Althoughimprovinglabourproductivityremainskeytomaintainingprofitabilityandcompetitivenessononehand,andpayinghigherwagesontheother,therearemanyissues,bothconceptualandmeasurement-related,thatcanaffectthesevariables,andinferencesregardingthisrelationshipthatmustbenuanced.

Realwagesinthesectorhaveincreasedinmostcountries,butworkingconditionsremainpooringeneral,includinglongandintenseworkinghours,pooroccupationalsafetyandhealth,andviolationsoffundamentalrightsatwork.Despitethehighshareofwageandsalariedemploymentandthedominanceoflargerfirmsinmostcountries,asignificantproportionofthesector’sworkersremainhighlyvulnerable,duetowidespreadinformalityandthetemporarynatureoftheirworkingarrangements.Theseincludelargenumbersofhome-basedworkersandown-accountworkers.ThisissueiscriticalastheCOVID-19crisishasnotonlyemphasizedthevulnerabilityoftheseworkers,butalsoraisedquestionsregardingthesustainabilityofgarmentsupplychainsintheircurrentform.

Althoughwomenrepresentalargeshareofgarmentworkers,genderpaygapspersist,andareparticularlyelevatedincountrieswheretherearebroadersystematiclabourmarketchallengesforwomen.Insomecontexts,womenworkersarevictimtophysicalandsexualviolence,duetothegenderednatureoftheirworkplaces.

PoorworkingconditionsintheGTFsectorarelargelyattributabletoGSCfeaturesandtheirinteractionwithinstitutionalconstraintsatthecountrylevel.ThepowerasymmetriesinherentingarmentGSCsatvariouslevels,andthecomplexwebofactorsinvolved,limitaccountabilityforsocialupgradingandimprovingworkingconditions,andfurthercomplicateindustrialrelations.Althoughpoormanagement

viiiXEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

practices,weakgovernmentcapacity,limitedcollectivebargainingandotherinstitutionalconstraintscertainlyplayanimportantroleintheequation,thenegativeimpactofMNEsourcingpracticesandofthefast-fashionbusinessmodelmustalsobetakenintoaccountinanyinitiativeaimedatimprovinglabourproductivityandworkingconditionsinthesector,andpromotingitssustainabilityandresilience.

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork1

X1

Introduction

PriortotheonsetoftheglobalCoronavirus(COVID-19)pandemic,theglobalgarmentsectorwasalreadyatacrossroads.1Thesupplychainsetupwasbeingchallengedbyconverginglabourcosts,increasingthepotentialofdisruptionduetoproductionandprocessautomation,theloomingpossibilityof‘reshoring’and‘nearshoring’,andincreasedpressurestotransitiontowardsmoresustainablebusinessmodels(Anderssonetal.,2018).Thesetrends,alongwithtradetensionsandchangingtradepatterns,werealreadyraisingquestionsregardingthecontinuationofAsia’spositionasthe‘garmentsandtextilesfactoryoftheworld’.Acrosstheregion,thegarment,textileandfootwear(GTF)sectorremainedamajorcontributortogrossdomesticproduct(GDP),exportsandforeigncurrencyrevenues,aswellasemployment.

Untilrecentlyhowever,wagesandproductivityinAsia’sgarmentsectorhaveremainedlowonaverage,andalargeshareofthesector’sworkersremainedhighlyvulnerabletoeconomicshocks.Inrecentyears,thechallengeofcreatingdecentworkandsustainableenterprisesinthissectordominatedbyglobalsupplychainshasbeenthesubjectofmuchresearch,advocacyandpracticaleffortsattheinternationalandnationallevels.2Havinginitiallybeendrivenheavilybylowlabourcosts,ithasbecomeincreasinglyclearthatthesector’sexpansioncannolongerbesustainedalongthesamelinesinthefuture;instead,newdriversofcompetitivenesswillbeneededthatrequireimprovedwagesandworkingconditions(Huynh,2015).

AgainstthisbackdropcametheCOVID-19crisis,whichinadditiontoitsdevastatinglabourmarketandsocio-economiceffects,threatenstohavelongerlastingimpactsacrosstheregion,namelythroughtheinteractionwithtechnologyandothermegatrends.ThepandemichitAsia’smanufacturingsectorhardinitially,aslocalizedimpactshad‘rippleeffects’acrossglobalsupplychainsduetoshortagesofintermediateinputsandbottlenecks,andsubsequentlythroughamassivedropinglobaldemand(ILO,2020a,2020b).Themanufacturingsectorisestimatedtohaveaccountedforapproximately30percentofjoblossesintheAsiaandPacificregionrelativetotheno-pandemicbaselinein2020(ILO2021,68).Moreover,byprovidingaddedincentivesforcompaniestodigitalise,automateandnear-shore,theCovid-19crisismayhaveacceleratedkeyfutureofworktrends,withmajorimplicationsforAsiaandthe

1Inthisreport,unlessotherwisespecified‘garmentsector’isusedinterchangeablywiththe‘Garment,TextilesandFootwear(GTF)sector’,consistingofthethreeindustrygroupsdefinedasISICRev4(groups13,14,15)orISICRev3(groups17,18and19).TodifferentiatetheoverallGTFsectorfromitssub-sectorISICRev4group14(equivalenttoISICRev3group17),thelatterisreferredtoas‘WearingApparel’or‘Clothing’.

2Globalsupplychainsreferto“thecross-borderorganizationoftheactivitiesrequiredtoproducegoodsorservicesandbringthemtoconsumersthroughinputsandvariousphasesofdevelopment,productionanddelivery.Thisdefinitionincludesforeigndirectinvestment(FDI)bymultinationalenterprises(MNEs)inwhollyownedsubsidiariesorinjointventuresinwhichtheMNEhasdirectresponsibilityfortheemploymentrelationship.Italsoincludestheincreasinglypredominantmodelofinternationalsourcingwheretheengagementofleadfirmsisdefinedbythetermsandconditionsofcontractualorsometimestacitarrangementswiththeirsuppliersandsubcontractedfirmsforspecificgoods,inputsandservices.”(ILO,2016).

2XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

garmentsectorinparticular(Baldwin,2020;McKinseyGlobalInstitute,2021).

Atthiscriticaljuncture,thisreportoffersobjectivedatainsightsandrobustcomparativeinformationtoinformpoliciesandpracticesonwages,productivityanddecentworkinthegarmentsector.Thereportaimstodemonstratethatvariousstructuralfactors–includingtradepolicyandsupplychaindynamicsatthegloballevel,aswellasindustrycompositionandinstitutionalandcontextualfactorsatthelocallevel–interacttodetermineexportandoutputgrowth,competitiveness,labourproductivity,andwagesandworkingconditions.Inthepost-pandemicera,anyinterventiontosafeguardandexpanddecentworkopportunitiesinthesectormusttakeintoaccountthesestructuralchallenges.

Thereportisstructuredasfollows.Theintroductorysectiondescribesthedataandapproachusedinthereport,andprovidesanoverviewofbothAsia’simportanceforglobalgarmentproduction,andtheGTFsector’simportancefortheregion’seconomies.Section2providesamappingofthesector,whichhasbecomeincreasinglystructuredaroundGSCs,focusingontheimplicationofGSCfeaturesanddynamicsfordecentwork.Section3describestheemploymentstructureofthesector,highlightingitscomplexityandthemultiplicityofactorsinvolved,spanningacrosstheformalandinformalsectors.Section4discusseswagesandlabourproductivityinthesector,includingfromadynamicperspective.Section5highlightskeyissuesaffectingdecentworkoutcomesforwomenwhomakeupalargesegmentofthesector’sworkforce.Section6brieflydiscussesindustrialrelationsinthesector’schallengingenvironment.Thelastsectionprovidesconcludingremarks.

1.1.Dataandapproach

ThisreportprimarilyreliesondatainsightsfromLabourForceSurvey(LFS)microdatafor11Asiangarmentsexportingcountries(Bangladesh,Cambodia,India,Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Pakistan,Philippines,SriLanka,ThailandandVietNam).DataonChina,forwhichthereisnoLFS,areincludedfromalternativesources(e.g.ILOestimates)whenavailable.ForallcountrieswithLFScoverage,industryleveldataareavailableatthetwo-digitleveloftheInternationalStandardIndustrialClassificationofAllEconomicActivities(ISIC).3ThisallowsustoconsistentlyquantifyemploymentintheGTFsectoraswellasincludingthethreefollowingsub-sectorsorindustries:Manufactureoftextiles;manufactureofwearingapparel;andmanufactureofleatherandrelatedproducts.4

TheuseofLFSdatahasseveraladvantages.Inparticular,beingahousehold-basedsurvey,theLFSallowscapturing,anddifferentiatingbetween,formalandinformalemployment,theprevalenceofself-employment,home-basedwork,temporaryorothernon-standardworkingarrangementsandotherrelevantemploymentcharacteristics.LFSdataalsoprovidedetailedinsightstocomplementandcross-validatealternativedatasourcessuchastheWageIndicatorGarmentsSupplyChainDatabase.5Datafromthelatter,whichrepresentsasubstantialeffortatmappingtheglobalgarmentssupplychain(seevanKlaverenandTijdens,2018),arealsousedhere,alongwithqualitativeinformationfromdiversesourcesasanattempttopiecetogetherpartsofthiscomplexpuzzle,andimproveourunderstandingofthedriversofcompetitiveness,labourproductivityandwagesacrossAsia’sgarmentsector.

InadditiontoLFSandemploymentdatafromvarioussources,thisanalysisalsomakesuseofgrossvalueadded(GVA)datafromNationalStatisticalOffices(NSOs)whenavailable,oralternativelyfromtheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)’sinput-outputdatabase.ExportdataaretakenfromtheUNComtrade

3Unfortunately,LFSdataforIndonesiaatthetwo-digitISIClevelwasavailableuntil2015only.Thereafter,LFSmicro-da-tasetsmadeavailabletotheILOwerelimitedtothesingledigitsectors,limitingthepossibilityofmorerecentcomparativeanalysis.

4Thesesub-sectorsareequivalenttoISICRev4groups13-15,andISICRev3groups17-19.

5TheWageIndicatorGarmentSupplyChainDatabase,compiledin2018,comprisesdataonthesupplychainsof24majorclothingandfootwearsellingfirmsorbrands,across25productioncountries,outofwhich16areAsiancountries,fourareAfricancountries,andfiveareLatinAmerican.Itincludesdataon8,110factoriesbelongingtothesesupplychainsacrossthe25countries.SeevanKlaverenandTijdens,2018.

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork3

databaseandfromtheWorldTradeOrganization(WTO),andadditionaldata(exchangerates,consumerpriceindicesandUSDollarPurchasingPowerParity–PPP–conversionfactors)aretakenfromtheWorldBank’sWorldDevelopmentIndicators(WDI)andInternationalMonetaryFund(IMF)’sInternationalFinancialStatistics(IFS)databases.

Theapproachadoptedhereisadescriptiveanalysis,whichseekstocloselyexaminethestructureanddynamicsoftheGTFsectorintheselectedcountries,toenableevidence-basedpoliciesregardingitsfuture.Specifically,itaimstocontextualizethediscussionaroundwagesandlabourproductivityintherealitiesofthesector,tofacilitatesocialdialoguearoundtheseissues.Theanalysiscoversstructuralandinstitutionalfactors,includingindustrialrelations,andhighlightschallengesforsub-groupsofworkersincludinginformalandtemporaryworkers,home-basedworkersandwomenwhoconstitutelargesharesofemploymentingarmentsGSCs.

1.2.IsAsiastillthegarmentfactoryoftheworld?

Asia’sshareinglobaltextilesandclothingexportshasgrownsignificantlysincetheearly2000s,peakingat58percentin2015,beforedecliningtoabout55percentin2019(Figure1).6ThesetrendswerelargelydrivenbyChina,whichsawcontinuousexportgrowthinbothsub-sectorsuntil2015,afterwhichitsdecliningshareinwearingapparelexportswasonlypartlyoffsetbyanincreaseintheshareofotherAsianclothingexporters,specifically,VietNam,Bangladesh,MyanmarandCambodia.ThethreepercentdeclineinAsia’smarketsharesince2015wasabsorbedprimarilybyEuropeastheshareinexportsofallotherregionsstayedrelativelyconstantordeclined.7Thiscouldsuggestthatnearshoring,ratherthanrelocationtolowercostdestinations,hastakenplaceduringtheseyears.Despitetherecentdecline,China’sdominanceremainsunmatchedwith34percentofglobalGTFexportsin2019,followedbyVietNam(fivepercent),BangladeshandIndia(4.3percenteach).

6TheWageIndicatorGarmentSupplyChainDatabase,compiledin2018,comprisesdataonthesupplychainsof24majorclothingandfootwearsellingfirmsorbrands,across25productioncountries,outofwhich16areAsiancountries,fourareAfricancountries,andfiveareLatinAmerican.Itincludesdataon8,110factoriesbelongingtothesesupplychainsacrossthe25countries.SeevanKlaverenandTijdens,2018.

7Inparticular,theNetherlands,Germany,Poland,SpainandItalysawtheirsharesinGTFexportsincreasethemostoverthe2015-19period.

4XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicyinsightsforthefutureofwork

XFigure1Asia’sshareinglobalGTFexports,2000-19

DrivenbyChina,Asia'sshareinglobalGTFexportsgrewto58percentin2015,afterwhichithasdeclinedto55percentin2019.

Source:WorldTradeOrganisation,InternationalTradeStatistics.CreatedwithDatawrapper.

1.3.HowimportantisthegarmentsectorforAsian

economies?

TheGTFsectorhasplayedandcontinuestoplayasignificantroleformanyeconomiesacrossAsia.Thesector’sevolutionhasnotfollowedthesamepathsacrosscountrieshowever.ItsrelativeimportancehasdeclinedinrecentyearsincountrieslikeChina,ThailandandthePhilippines,whichhavediversifiedtheirmanufacturingsectorawayfromlabour-intensiveproductiontowardsmediumandhighertechnologyintensityindustries.InothereconomieslikeBangladeshandCambodia,thesector’simportancehascontinuedtogrow.Inthemostrecentyearsforwhichdataareavailable,thesectorcontributedapproximatelytwo-thirdsofmanufacturingvalueadded(MVA)inCambodia,44percentinBangladesh,and28to30percentinPakistan,SriLankaandVietNam8.Thesectoralsoaccountedforasignificantshareofthesecountries’merchandiseexports:91percentinBangladesh,66percentinCambodia,58percentinPakistan,45percentinSriLankaand22percentinVietNam(Figure2).

8Manufacturingvalueaddedreferstotheestimateofthenetoutput(totaloutputminusintermediateconsumption)ofallmanufacturingunitsinaneconomy.Measuredasapercentageofgrossdomesticproduct(GDP),itisawidelyusedmeasureofthemanufacturingsector’scontributiontoaneconomy.

XEmployment,wagesandproductivitytrendsintheAsiangarmentsector:dataandpolicy