【生物课件】细胞质基质与细胞内膜系统

1.TheCompartmentalizationinEukaryoticCellsMembranesdividethecytoplasmofeukaryoticcellsintodistinctcompartments.

Threecategoriesineukaryoticcells:(1)theendomembranesystem:ER,Golgicomplex,Lys.,secretoryvesicles.(2)thecytosol.(3)mitochondria,chloroplasts,peroxisomes,andthenucleus.Membrane-boundstructures(organelles)arefoundinalleukaryoticcells.目前一页\总数六十二页\编于点CytoplasmicmatrixanditsfunctionsCytoplasmicMatrix:Theregionoffluidcontentofthecytoplasmoutsideofthemembranousorganelles.Aqueoussolutionoflargeandsmallmoleculesincludingfilamentsofcytoskeletonwhichactasorganizerforsomeorder.TheCytosolisthesiteofproteinsynthesisanddegradationormodification.Italsoperformsmostofthecell’sintermediarymetabolism.Cytoplasmicmatrix(Cytosol)andEndomembraneSystem目前二页\总数六十二页\编于点Functionsofcytoplasmicmatrix:Theproteinsynthesis,degradationandmodification.Cellscarefullymonitortheamountofmisfoldedproteins.Anaccumulationofmisfoldedproteinsinthecytosoltriggersaheat-shockresponse,whichstimulatesthetranscriptionofgenesencodingcytosolicchaperonesthathelptorefoldtheproteins.目前三页\总数六十二页\编于点目前四页\总数六十二页\编于点B.EndomembraneSystemEndomembraneSystem:ThestructuralandfunctionalrelationshiporganellesincludingER,Golgicomplex,lysosome,endosomes,secretoryvesicles.Membrane-boundstructures(organelles)arefoundinalleukaryoticcells.目前五页\总数六十二页\编于点Intracellularcompartment%oftotalcellvolumeCytosol54Mittchondria22RoughERcisternae9SmoothERcisternaeplusGolgicisternae6Nucleus6Peroxisome1Lysosomes1Endosomes1RelativevolumesoccupiedbythemajorintracellularcompartmentsinLiverCell目前六页\总数六十二页\编于点C.TheDynamicNatureoftheEndomembraneSystemMostorganellesarepartofadynamicsysteminwhichvesiclesmovebetweencompartments.Biosyntheticparthwaysmoveproteins,carbohydratesandlipidswithinthecell.Secretorypathwaysdischargeproteinsfromcells.Endocyticparthwaysmovematerialsintocells.Sortingsignalsarerecognizedbyreceptorsandtargetproteinstospecificsites.目前七页\总数六十二页\编于点D.Afewapproachestothestudyofcytomembranes

Insightsgainedfromautoradiography;Insightsgainedfromthebiochemicalanalysisofsubcellularfractions;Insightsgainedfromthestudyofgeneticmutants;Thedynamicactivitiesofendomembranesystemsarehighlyconserveddespitethestructuraldiversityofdifferentcelltypes.目前八页\总数六十二页\编于点DeDuve,A.ClaudeandG.Palade,1974NobelPlrize目前九页\总数六十二页\编于点2.ThestructureandfunctionsofEndoplasmicReticulum(ER)RoughendoplasmicreticulumandSmoothendoplasmicreticulum

RERhasribosomesonthecytosolicsideofcontinuous,flattenedsacs(cisternae);SERisaninterconnectingnetworkoftubularmembraneelements.目前十页\总数六十二页\编于点A.FunctionsoftherERProteinssynthesizedonribosomesofrERinclude:

secretoryproteins,integralmembraneproteins,solubleproteinsoforganelles.

目前十一页\总数六十二页\编于点SynthesisofmembranelipidsMostmembranelipidsaresynthesizedenterlywithintheER.Therearetwoexceptions:sphingomyelinandglycolipids,(beginsinER;completedinGolgi);(2)someoftheuniquelipidsoftheMitandChlmembranes(themself).Themembranesofdifferent0rganelleshavemarkedlydifferentlipidscomposition.Transportbybudding：ER→GC、Ly、PMTransportbyphospholipidexchangeproteins(PEP)：ER→otherorganelles（includingMitandChl）目前十二页\总数六十二页\编于点B.FunctionsofthesERSynthesisofsteroidsinendocrinecells.Detoxificationoforganiccompoundsinlivercells.Systemofoxygenases---cytochromep450familyReleaseofglucose6-phosphateinlivercells.SequestrationofCa2+.Ca2+-ATPase目前十三页\总数六十二页\编于点3.ThestructureandfunctionsofGolgicomplexA.ThepolarityofGolgicomplex目前十四页\总数六十二页\编于点a)CiscisternaeofGolgicomplex:reducedosmiumtetroxide(OsO4);b)ReactionforenzymemannosidaseII,localizedinthemedial;c)Reactionforenzymenucleosidediphosphatase,localizedinthetranscisternae.RegionaldifferencesinmembranecompositionacrosstheGolgistack目前十五页\总数六十二页\编于点B.TheFunctionsofGolgicomplexGlycosylationintheGolgicomplexGolgicomplexplaysakeyroleintheassemblyofthecarbohydratecomponentofglycoproteinsandglycolipids.目前十六页\总数六十二页\编于点ThecorecarbohydrateofN-linkedoligosaccharidesisassembledintherER.ModificationstoN-linkedoligosaccharidesarecompletedintheGolgicomplex.O-linkedoligosaccharidestakesplaceinGolgicomplex.目前十七页\总数六十二页\编于点StructureoftypicalO-andN-linkedoligosaccharidesCoreRegionAfterR.KornfeldandS.Kornfeld,1985,Annu.Rev.Biochem.

45:631目前十八页\总数六十二页\编于点Whatisthepurposeofglycosylation?N-linkedglycosylationisprevalentinalleucaryotes,butisabsentfromprocaryotes.Itdon’trequireatemplate.ThereisanimportantdifferencebetweentheconstructionofanoligosaccharideandthesynthesisofDNA,RNA,andprotein.Importantfunctions:

(1)Onemightsuspectthattheyfunctiontoaidfoldingandthetransportprocess;forexample,carbohydrateasamarkerduringproteinfoldinginERandtheuseofcarbohydrate-bindinglectinsinguidingER-to-Golgitransport.(2)Limittheapproachofothermacromoleculestotheproteinsurface,moreresistanttodigestionbyproteases.(3)Regulatoryrolesinsignalingthroughthecell-surfacereceptorNotch,toallowsthesecellstorespondselectivelytoactivatingstimuli.目前十九页\总数六十二页\编于点TheGolginetworksareprocessingandsortingstationswhereproteinsaremodified,segregatedandthenshippedindifferentdirections.目前二十页\总数六十二页\编于点

VesivulartransportwithintheGolgiapparatus:

Twoviews:cisternalmaturationmodelandvesiculartransportmodelTwopossiblemodelsexplainingtheorganizationoftheGolgicomplexandthetransportfromonecisternatothenext.目前二十一页\总数六十二页\编于点十十

十

C.GolgiBiogenesisStagesofGolgigrowthanddivision.ShownarethinsectionelectronmicrographsofT.gondiiRHtachyzoitesreplicatingbyendodyogenyinHFFcells.CellswereplacedinoneoffourcategoriesaccordingtothenumberandsizeoftheGolgi:a,singleGolgi;b,single,elongatedGolgi;c,twoGolgi;d,Golgi,oftenmorevesiculated,ineachnascentdaughtercell,delineatedbythegrowinginnermembranecomplex(IMC).a,apicoplast;dg,densegranules;er,ER;es,ERexitsitesontheouterflattenedpartofthenuclearenvelope;G,Golgi;m,micronemes;mit,mitochondria;r,rhoptries.Scalebar,0.5mm.目前二十二页\总数六十二页\编于点StableexpressionofmammalianGolgiproteins.a,b,OverlaidimmunofluorescenceandphaseimagesofGRASP–YFP(a)andNAGTI–YFP(b)instable,transgeniccelllinesofToxoplasmagondii.c–h,ImmunofluorescenceimagesofatransgeniccelllineexpressingbothGRASP–CFP(green)andNAGTI–YFP(red)before(c–e)orafter(f–h)treatmentwith5mg/mlBFAfor10minat37ºC.Mergedimagesareshownontheright.AsterisksindicateasecretedformofNAGTI–YFPthataccumulatesintheparasitophorousvacuole.Scalebars,5mm.目前二十三页\总数六十二页\编于点Immunoelectronmicroscopyoftransgenicparasites.a–c,CryosectionsofGRASP–YFP(a,c)orNAGTI–YFP(b)transgenicparasites,pretreatedfor2hwith50mg/mlcycloheximide,beforebeingfixedandimmunolabelledforYFPusingpolyclonalantibodiesagainstGFPfollowedbyproteinAcoupledto5-nmgoldparticles.NotethehighdensityoflabellingrestrictedtoGolgimembranes.Inc,GRASP–YFPtransgenicparasitesweretreatedwithBFA(5mg/ml)for30minbeforeimmunolabelling.Notethetubulo-vesicularappearanceoftheGolgicausedbylossofGolgienzymestotheER.d,Quantificationofimagesinaandb.Resultsarepresentedasmean±s.d.goldparticles/um2.目前二十四页\总数六十二页\编于点BiogenesisoftheGolgiapparatusinlivingparasites.a–h,TransgenicparasitesstablyexpressingIMC1–CFP(blue)weretransfectedwithplasmidDNAencodingGRASP–YFP(green).After20hofinfectioninHFFs,fourparasiteswereimagedbytime-lapsevideofluorescencemicroscopy.Imagesweretakenevery10minfor7hat37°C.Representativeimagesattheindicatedtimesareshown.NotethatT.gondii.Replicatessynchronouslyinagivenvacuole,whichpermitssimultaneousimagingofseveralcellsatthesamecell-cyclestage.i,j,TransgenicparasitesexpressingNAGTI–YFP(green)wereimagedovertimeandsampleimageslateincelldivisionareshown.ForbothGolgimarkersnotetheinheritanceoftwostructuresbyeachnascentdaughter(f,i,j)andtheireventualcoalescence(arrowingandh).k,Threedimensionalreconstructionoftwoparasitesduringmitosis.TheGolgiwasselectivelyoutlinedinredandotherelectron-densestructureswerecolouredingreenordarkbluetodifferentiatethetwoformingdaughtercells.Golgiareinheritedbybothcells,andinthecompletereconstructionofonedaughter(right)twoGolgistructuresarevisible(arrows).NotethattheotherdaughterwasonlyreconstructedpartiallyandcontainsasingleGolgistructure.目前二十五页\总数六十二页\编于点4.ThestructureandfunctionsofLysosomesA.CharacteristicsofLysosomes①Lysosomeisaheterogenousorganelle:PrimarylysosomesSecondlysosomesheterophagicautophagicResidualbodyPrimaryLys.SecondLys目前二十六页\总数六十二页\编于点

Figure

6-19

Histochemicalvisualizationoflysosomes.

Electronmicro-graphsoftwosectionsofacellstainedtorevealthelocationofacidphosphatase,amarkerenzymeforlysosomes.Thelargermembrane-boundedorganelles,containingdenseprecipitatesofleadphosphate,arelysosomes,whosediversemorphologyreflectsvariationsintheamountandnatureofthematerialtheyaredigesting.Theprecipitatesareproducedwhentissuefixedwithglutaraldehydeisincubatedwithaphosphatasesubstrateinthepresenceofleadions.TwosmallvesiclesthoughttobecarryingacidhydrolasesfromtheGolgiapparatusareindicatedbyredarrowsinthetoppanel.(CourtesyofDanielS.Friend.)

目前二十七页\总数六十二页\编于点②Lysosomescontainplentyacidhydrolasesthatcandigesteverykindofbiologicalmolecule.---theprincipalsitesofintracellulardigestion.Markerenzyme:acidphosphatase③Lysosomemembrane:H+-pumps:internalprotonconcentrationiskepthighbyH+-ATPaseGlycosylatedproteins:mayprotectthelysosomefromself-digestion.

Transportproteins:transportingdigestedmaterials.目前二十八页\总数六十二页\编于点Figure

13-18

ThelowpHinlysosomesandendosomes.

ProteinslabeledwithapH-sensitivefluorescentprobe(fluorescein)andthenendocytosedbycellscanbeusedtomeasurethepHinendosomesandlysosomes.ThedifferentcolorsreflectthepHthatthefluorescentprobeencountersintheseorganelles.ThepHinlysosomes(red)isabout5,whilethepHinvarioustypesofendosomes(blueandgreen)rangesfrom5.5to6.5.(CourtesyofFredMaxfieldandKennethDunn.)目前二十九页\总数六十二页\编于点Figure

13-20

Theplantcellvacuole.

Thiselectronmicrographofcellsinayoungtobaccoleafshowsthatthecytosolisconfinedbytheenormousvacuoletoathinlayer,containingchloroplasts,pressedagainstthecellwall.Themembraneofthevacuoleiscalledthetonoplast.(CourtesyofJ.Burgess.)目前三十页\总数六十二页\编于点B.TheFunctionsofLysosomesLysosomesareinvolvedinthreemajorcellfunctions:①phagocytosis;②autophagy;③endocytosis.Primarylysfusewitheitherphagocyticorautophagicvesicles,formingresidualbodiesthateitherundergoexocytosisorareretainedinthecellaslipofuscingranules.目前三十一页\总数六十二页\编于点C.LysosomesandDiseasesDisordersresultingfromdefectsinlysosomalfunction:①Autolysis:Abreakorleakinthemembraneoflysreleasesdigestiveenzymesintothecellwhichdamagesthesurroundingtissues(Silicosis).②

Lysosomalstoragediseasesareduetotheabsenceofoneormorelysosomalenzymes,andresultinginaccumulationofmaterialinlysosomesaslargeinclusions.OneseveretypeofthediseaseisI-celldisease(inclusion–celldisease,GlcNAc-Phosphotransferasegenemutant).

Tay-Sachsdiseaseresultsfromadeficiencyoftheenzyme(-N-hexosaminidaseA)whosefunctionistodegradegangliosides,amajorcomponentofbraincellmembranes.目前三十二页\总数六十二页\编于点表1.神经鞘脂贮积病疾病缺失酶类主要贮积底物后果GM1神经节苷脂贮积症GM1-半乳糖苷酶神经节苷脂GM1智力迟钝，肝脏肥大，骨骼受累，2岁前死亡泰－萨二氏病己糖胺酶A神经节苷脂GM2智力迟钝，失明，3岁前死亡法布莱氏病-半乳糖苷酶A三己糖神经酰胺皮疹，肾功能丧失，下肢疼痛山霍夫氏病己糖胺酶A和B神经节苷脂GM2和红细胞糖苷酯与泰－萨氏疾病症状相似，但发展更快高歇氏病葡糖脑苷酯酶葡糖脑苷脂肝脏和脾脏肿大，长骨腐蚀，只在婴儿期发生智力迟钝尼-皮二氏病鞘磷脂水解酶鞘磷脂肝脏和脾脏肿大，智力迟钝Farber’s脂肪肉芽肿病神经酰胺水解酶神经酰胺疼痛性与退行性的关节变形，皮肤瘤，几年内死亡Krabbe’s病半乳糖脑苷酯酶半乳糖脑苷脂髓磷脂缺失，智力迟钝，2岁前死亡脑硫脂沉积芳基硫酸酯酶脑硫脂智力迟钝，前十年死亡目前三十三页\总数六十二页\编于点D.BiogenesisofLysosomesFigure

6-23

Thetransportofnewlysynthesizedlysosomalhydrolasestolysosomes.

Theprecursorsoflysosomalhydrolasesarecovalentlymodifiedbytheadditionofmannose6-phosphateintheCGN.TheythenbecomesegregatedfromallothertypesofproteinsintheTGNbecauseaspecificclassoftransportvesiclesbuddingfromtheTGNconcentratesmannose6-phosphate-specificreceptors,whichbindthemodifiedlysosomalhydrolases.Thesevesiclessubsequentlyfusewithlateendosomes.AtthelowpHofthelateendosomethehydrolasesdissociatefromthereceptors,whicharerecycledtotheGolgiapparatusforfurtherroundsoftransport.Inlateendosomesthephosphateisremovedfromthemannoseonthehydrolases,furtherensuringthatthehydrolasesdonotreturntotheGolgiapparatuswiththereceptor.目前三十四页\总数六十二页\编于点Mannose6-phosphateresiduestargetproteinstolysosomesTargetingofsolublelysosomalenzymestoendosomesandlysosomesbyM-6-Ptag目前三十五页\总数六十二页\编于点

PhosphorylationofmannoseresiduesonlysosomalenzymescatalyzedbytwoenzymesRecognitionsitebindstoSignalpatchGlcNAcphosphotransferasephosphodiesterase目前三十六页\总数六十二页\编于点Figure6-40.Themannose6-phosphate(M6P)pathway,themajorroutefortargetinglysosomalenzymestolysosomes.

PrecursorsoflysosomalenzymesmigratefromtherERtothecis-Golgiwheremannoseresiduesarephosphorylated.IntheTGN,thephosphorylatedenzymesbindtoM6Preceptors,whichdirecttheenzymesintovesiclescoatedwiththeclathrin.Theclathrinlatticesurroundingthesevesiclesisrapidlydepolymerizedtoitssubunits,andtheuncoatedtransportvesiclesfusewithlateendosomes.Withinthislow-pHcompartment,thephosphorylatedenzymesdissociatefromtheM6Preceptorsandthenaredephosphorylated.ThereceptorsrecyclebacktotheGolgi,andtheenzymesareincorporatedintoadifferenttransportvesiclethatbudsfromthelateendosomeandsoonfuseswithalysosome.ThesortingoflysosomalenzymesfromsecretoryproteinsthusoccursintheTGN,andthesetwoclassesofproteinsareincorporatedintodifferentvesicles,whichtakedifferentroutesaftertheybudfromtheGolgi.[G.Griffithsetal.,Cell

52:329;S.Kornfeld,Annu.Rev.Biochem.

61:307;andG.GriffithsandJ.Gruenberg,TrendsCellBiol.

1:5]目前三十七页\总数六十二页\编于点5.ProteinSorting

Overviewofsortingofnuclear-encodedproteinsineukaryoticcellsProteinsareimportedintoorganellesbythreemechanisms:GatedTransport:TransportthroughnuclearporesTransmembranetransport:ER,Mit,Chl,PerVesiculartransport:ER-Golgi-PM-Lys,Endosome目前三十八页\总数六十二页\编于点

Roadmapofproteinsorting

目前三十九页\总数六十二页\编于点Proteinsorting:Proteinmoleculesmovefromthecytosoltotheirtargetorganellesorcellsurfacedirectedbythesortingsignalsintheproteins.目前四十页\总数六十二页\编于点SignalpeptidesandSignalpatchesFigure

6-8

Twowaysthatasortingsignalcanbebuiltintoaprotein.

(A)Thesignalresidesinasinglediscretestretchofaminoacidsequence,calledasignalpeptide,thatisexposedinthefoldedprotein.Signalpeptidesoftenoccurattheendofthepolypeptidechain,buttheycanalsobelocatedelsewhere.(B)Asignalpatchcanbeformedbythejuxtapositionofaminoacidsfromregionsthatarephysicallyseparatedbeforetheproteinfolds;alternatively,separatepatchesonthesurfaceofthefoldedproteinthatarespacedafixeddistanceapartcouldformthesignal.目前四十一页\总数六十二页\编于点Gatedtransport:

Throughgatedpores—Nuclearpores;Nuclearlocalizationsignal(NLS);Foldedandassemblyformtotransport.TransmembranetransportERsignalsequence,Mit,Chl,Per:Leadersequence;Throughtranslocononthemembrane;SingleandUnfoldform;Helpedbymolecularchaperons目前四十二页\总数六十二页\编于点VesiculartransportBudding,transporting,dockingandatlastfusionwithtargetmembrane;Assemblycoatedproteinsonthevesicles(Clathrin,COPIIandCOPI);OnlyProperlyfoldedandassembledproteins;Theorientationoftransportedproteinsandlipidsisnotchangedduringtransporting.目前四十三页\总数六十二页\编于点B.SignalHypothesis

--G.Blobel&D.Sabatini,1971.AmodelfortheSignalMechanismofCotranslationalImportEvidenceThatProteinSynthesizedonRibosomesAttachedtoERMembranesPassDirectlyintotheERLumen(D.Sabatini)Milstein:IgG目前四十四页\总数六十二页\编于点Milsteinetal:StudyingthesynthesisoflightchainofIgG(incell-freesystems,20AalongeratN-terminalendthantheauthenticlightchain)AddingERmembranestothissystemleadstotheproductionofanIgGlightchainofthecorrectsize.目前四十五页\总数六十二页\编于点

ASchematicmodelforthesynthesisofasecretoryproteinonamembrane-boundribosomeoftheroughER目前四十六页\总数六十二页\编于点Signal-recognitionparticle,SRP:Sixdifferentpolypeptidescomplexedwitha300-nucleotide(7S)moleculeofRNA.ERsignalsequence:Typically15-30aminoacids:Consistofthreedomains:apositivelychargedN-terminalregion,acentralhydrophobicregion,andapolarregionadjoiningthesitewherecleavagefromthematureproteinwilltakeplace.AsignalsequenceonnascentseretoryproteinstargetsthemtotheERandisthencleavedoffSRPreceptor(GTPbindingprotein)SRPhavethreemainactivesites:OnethatrecognizesandbindstoERsignalsequence;Onethatinteractswiththeribosometoblockfurthertranslation;OnethatbindstotheERmembrane(dockingprotein))目前四十七页\总数六十二页\编于点ThesortingsignalofVSVglycoproteins:Asp-X-Gln或DXEFigure6-43.Thesortingofproteinsdestinedfortheapicalandbasolateralplasmamembranesofepithelialcells.

WhenculturedMDCKcellsareinfectedsimultaneouslywithVSVandinfluenzavirus,theVSVglycoproteinisfoundonlyonthebasolateralmembrane,whereastheHAglycoproteinoftheinfluenzavirusisfoundonlyontheapicalmembrane.Liketheseviralproteins,somecellularproteinsaresorteddirectlytotheapicalmembraneandotherstothebasolateralmembraneviaspecifictransportvesiclesthatbudfromthetrans-Golginetwork.Incertainotherpolarizedcells,someapicalandbasolateralproteinsaretransportedtogethertothebasolateralsurface;theapicalproteinsthenmoveselectively,byendocytosisandtranscytosis,totheapicalmembrane.[K.Simonsetal.,Cell

62:207;K.Mostovetal.,JCB.

116:577]目前四十八页\总数六十二页\编于点Start-transferSequence&Stop-transferSequence目前四十九页\总数六十二页\编于点Figure6-24.SynthesisandinsertionintotheERmembraneoftheGLUT1glucosetransporterandotherproteinswithmultipletransmembranea-helicalsegments.

TheN-terminalahelixfunctionsasaninternal,uncleavedsignal-anchorsequence(red),directingbindingofthenascentpolypeptidechaintotherERmembraneandinitiatingcotranslationalinsertion.BothSRPandtheSRPreceptorareinvolvedinthisstep.Followingsynthesisofhelix2,whichfunctionsasastop-transfermembrane-anchorsequence,extrusionofthechainthroughthetransloconintotheERlumenceases.ThefirsttwoahelicesthenmoveoutofthetransloconintotheERbilayer,anchoringthenascentchainasana-helicalhairpin.TheC-terminusofthenascentchaincontinuestogrowinthecytosol.Subsequenta-helicalhairpinscouldinsertsimilarly,althoughSRPandtheSRPreceptorarerequiredonlyforinsertionofthefirstsignalanchorsequence.Althoughonlysixtransmembraneahelicesaredepictedhere,GLUT1andproteinsofsimilarstructurehavetwelveormore.[H.P.Wesselsetal.,Cell

55:61.]目前五十页\总数六十二页\编于点TheOrientationofNascentPolypeptide

TheNascentpolypeptideisorientedwithintransloconsothatthepositivelychargedflankingsequencefacesthecytosol目前五十一页\总数六十二页\编于点C.

AModelforthePostranslationalImportofPolypeptidesintotheMit.Post-translationalmodificationandqualitycontrolintherERDisulfidebondsareformedandrearrangedintheERlumenOnlyinERlumenistherearedoxenvironmentforoxidationof–SHgroups.PDI:proteindisulfideisomerase,foundinabundanceintheERlumen目前五十二页\总数六十二页\编于点6.

TypesofVesicleTransportandTheirFunctionsA.Thethreedifferenttypesofcoatedvesicles.Differentcoatproteinsselectdifferentcargoandshapethetransportvesiclesthatmediatethevariousstepsinthebiosynthetic-secretoryandendocyticpathways.目前五十三页\总数六十二页\编于点COPII-coatedvesiclesmovematerialsfromtheERtotheGolgi.TheassemblyofaCOPII-coatedvesicles.Sar—GTPbindingprotein:Sar-GTPbindstotheER;Sar-GDPdissociatesfromtheERAntibodiesisabletoblockthebuddingofvesiclefromERbuthavenoeffectonvesicletransportfromoneGolgicompartmenttoanotherinmammaliancell.目前五十四页\总数六十二页\编于点COPI-coatedvasiclestransportingEscapedERresidentProteinsBacktotheER.TheassemblyofaCOPI-coatismediatedbyADP-ribosylationfactor(ARF),GTPbindingprotein,whichisrequiredforvesicletransferbetweencisternae.COPIcoatedvesiclesmayselectspecificcargo.

ERisanopenprison.SolubleERproteinbearRetrievingsignal—KDEL(Lys-Asp-Glu-Leu)inmammalandHDELinyeast,whereasERmembraneproteinsbearthesignalKKXX.TheKDELreceptorpresentinvesiculartubularclustersandtheGolgiapparatus..(3)COPI-coatedvesiclewerefirstidentifiedbytreatmentofGTPanalogues---COPI-coatedvesicleaccumulatedwithinthecellandcouldbeisolatedbycentrifugation.目前五十五页\总数六十二页\编于点Clathrin-coatedvesicle:TransportingCargofromtheTGNtoendosomes,Lysosomes,andplantvacuolesandalsomovematerialsfromthePMtocytoplasmiccompartmentsalongtheendocyticpathway.TheTGNofGolgiistheSourseofClathrin-coatedvesicle.(2)Clathrin-coatscontain:

proteinclathrin-----whichformsastructuralscaffold,adaptors----multisubunit,whichformsaninnershell.

目前五十六页\总数六十二页\编于点B.TheSNAREHypothesisforTransportVesicleTargetingandFusionSpecificityinvesicledockingandfusionisthoughttobeattainedthroughspecificinteractionsbetweenspecificv-SNAREproteinsonthevesiclemembranesandt-SNAREproteinsonthemembranesofthetargetcompartment.SNAREsareaproteinfamily.Thereareatleast20differentSNAREsinananimalcell.TheroleofSNAREsinguidingvesiculartransport.目前五十七页\总数六十二页\编于点我劝一个草率结婚的朋友离婚。她平静的告诉我，如果说当初鲁莽结婚是个错误。那么，现在草率离婚是一错再错。这位朋友后来还是离婚了，大家一致认为她的行为很理性。

同样的故事正在互联网搜索巨头谷歌身上发生，但是谷歌选择了草率“离婚”。

饮鸩止渴

由于急于抑制苹果iphone手机翻天覆地的产业冲击，谷歌采取急功近利的粗糙型开放策略。饮鸩止渴的策略一时取得了成果。市场研究公司尼尔森最近公布的数据显示，在通过VerizonWireless、AT&T和SprintNextel三大运营商经销后，谷歌Android手机在美国市场上的销售量已经超过iPhone。另一家市场研究公司iSuppli甚至认为，全球范围内使用Android操作系统的手机数量将在2012年超过苹果iPhone。

表面繁华的背后，是Android生态系统的一团糟，谷歌正在为自己的粗放型开放策略买单。

用户对谷歌手机的态度从开始的好奇、后来的犹豫，变成强烈的批评。“大多Android手机程序都是垃圾，乱七八糟的”，一位手机发烧友迅速投奔了iphone的阵营：“同样的植物人大战僵尸游戏，在谷歌手机和iphone手机上的体验简直没法比”

混乱，还是混乱。一切一切的乱象，折射出谷歌已经失去对Android生态系统的控制。这一切的根源，我的判断是开放策略初期过于宽松，导致失去控制权。混乱的生态系统表现在用户手机上，就是应用程序的混乱和粗燥。

一错再错

为此，谷歌开始采取对策。最近，有国内厂商称新的Android3.0开始关闭应用程序的API(应用程序编程接口)，统一Android界面。这意味着，谷歌将放弃其初始开放策略，开始封闭管理。

粗看之下，谷歌认识到自己的错误。既然是过度开放导致的错误，那么收紧开放尺度是很自然的逻辑，无懈可击。但我认为，谷歌仓促收紧开放策略仍然是个错误。打个比喻。如果过度开放的政策是草率结婚，那么草率的封闭就是草率离婚。这么判断的原因很简单，谷歌把Android开放出去的那一天，Android已经不属于谷歌。谷歌没有认识到这一点，还以为Android只是自己的。

合作伙伴对谷歌封闭政策的反应加强了我的判断结论。经济观察报报道，国内第一家生产基于Android平台手机的设计公司创杨通信，近日已经被迫出售。创杨通信负责人给出的出售理由是，“因为不愿意甘当炮灰而选择放弃。”

按照目前Android3.0将统一界面的想法，未来的手机市场将出现毫无差异化的产品。这对于企业来说，几乎意味着不可避免的价格战。利润空间的微薄，导致合作伙伴生存环境恶劣。于是大量退出几乎是一种必然。

除了为合作伙伴找到新的利益空间，谷歌还将面临开放阵营精神层面的声讨，这对谷歌的挑战会更大。如果说谷歌为了自己竞争的私利利用了开放，赢得了名声。那么，谷歌不能一脚把开放踢开，他现在还需要为这种名声买单。

如果只顾自己收网，谷歌会被面临铺天盖地的道德谴责。谷歌，希望你准备好了，三思而行。

木桶效应就是指一个水桶无论有多高，它盛水的高度取决于其中最低的那块木板。这在选购手机的时候也同样适用。尤其是很多用户在购买手机的时候，都会专注于某一个参数，比如要求处理器主频要高达1GHz，但一部手机的整机表现是由多个因素组成，所以在购买手机的时候一定要从整体的角度上来看一部手机的性除了处理器主频以外，其实还有很多影响整机表现的元素，比如运行内存(RAM)、机身内存(ROM)、操作系统、厂商对系统的优化都会有所影响。不过在很多用户眼中，这几项却远没有处理器主频重要。而如果忽略这几项的话，可能买到一个主频很高，但整机性能却仍然不令人满意的机型。

用户在选机过程中切勿只关注一个硬件参数，这样很可能并不能买到一款理想的机型，就算买的手机主频再高，运行内存低的话仍然无法同时运行数个程序、机身内存小的话则无法把太多的软件安装到机器上，这对整机耗电和运行速度方面都有所影响、而厂商优化更是决定着一部手机的稳定性和部分运行速度。综上所述，大家在选购手机的时候一定要综合考虑一款手机的硬件规格。除此之外，也不要把硬件看的太过重要，就比如苹果iPhone3GS在硬件配置上并不出众，但却在操控手感以及软件资源上目前难有机型企及。更高分辨率能获得更为逼真细腻的显示效果，所以对于屏幕的分辨率绝大多数人都会偏向于分辨率更高的机型。但对于笔者所说的高分辨率未必是好事会有所怀疑。其实这里说的高分辨率“不好”更多是指采用非主流的高分辨率机型。在此前，就有几款“悲情”机型在分辨率上吃了不小的亏。

大名鼎鼎的HTCDiamond就是一款颇具代表意义的机型，Diamond上市的手机市场还处于QVGA时代、只有少数旗舰机皇采用WVGA这样级别的屏幕，由于HTCDiamond却采用了VGA这一过渡型的分辨率，而也正是因为这一点，Diamond很多软件都未有支持或无法完美运行，可谓是一个不小的遗憾。除此之外，曾经非常经典的

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我们都老得太快

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「等到我大学毕业以后，我就会如何如何」我们对自己说「等到我买房子以后！」「等我最小的孩子结婚之后！」「等我把这笔生意谈成之后！」「等到我死了以后」人人都很愿意牺牲当下，去换取未知的等待；牺牲今生今世的辛苦钱，去购买后世的安逸在台湾只要往有山的道路上走一走，就随处