案例笔记语言学

ADetailedNoteforModernLinguisticsChapter1:IntroductionDefinethefollowing1).Linguistics:Itisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2).Generallinguistics:Thestudyoflanguageasawholeiscalledgeneral3).Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.4).Synchronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageatsomepointintime.e.g.AstudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimeisasynchronicstudy.5).Diachronicstudy:Thestudyofalanguageasitchangesthroughtime.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.e.g.astudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesinceShakespeare’stimeisadiachronic6).Languagecompetence:Theidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Atransformational-generativegrr（转化生成语法）isamodeloflanguagecompetence.7).Languageperformance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheideallanguageuser’sknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.8).Langue:Languereferstothe linguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently.9).Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfromto,andfromsituationtosituation.10).Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.11).Arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Agoodexampleisthefactthatdifferentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages.12).Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.13).Duality:Languageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerorbasiclevel,andtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.14).Discement:languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.15).Culturaltransmission:Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandlearned.16).Designfeatures:ItreferstothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunicationExinthefollowingdefinitionoflinguistics:Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Linguisticsinvestigatesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesinLinguisticstudyisscientificbecauseitisbasedonthesystematicinvestigationofauthentic(可靠的，真实的)languagedata.Noseriouslinguisticconclusionisreacheduntilafterthelinguisthasdonethefollowingthreethings:observingthewaylanguageisactuallyused,formulatingsomehypothesesandtestingthesehypothesesagainstlinguisticfactstoprovetheirvalidity.Whatarethebranchesoflinguistics?Whatdoeseachofthemstudy?(语LinguisticsmainlyinvolvesthefollowingGenerallinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguageasawholeandwhichdealswiththebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudyPhonetics,whichstudiesthesoundsthatareusedinlinguisticPhonology,whichstudieshowsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationMorphology,whichstudiesthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsSyntax,whichstudieshowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformSemantics,whichisthestudyofmeaninginPragmatics,whichisthestudyofmeaningnotinisolation,butinthecontextofuseSociolinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety9)Psycholinguistics,whichisthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmind.

Appliedlinguistics,whichisconcernedabouttheapplicationoflinguisticfindingsinlinguisticstudies;inanar¬rowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Otherrelatedbranchesareanthropologicallinguistics(人类语言学),neurologicallinguistics（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics（数学语言学）,andcomputationallinguistics（计算机语言学）.Whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrr?(现代Traditionalgrrisprescriptive（规定性）;itisbasedon"high"(religious,liry)writtenlanguage.Itsetsmodelsforlanguageuserstobasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedata.Itissupposedtoscientificandobjectiveandthetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis"correct"ornot.Ismodernlinguisticsmainlysynchronic（共时性）ordiachronic（历时性）Why?(Thedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.Unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescribelanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.Whichenjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwriting?Why?ModernlinguisticsgivesprioritytothespokenlanguageforthefollowingFirst,speechprecedeswriting.Thewritingsystemisalwaysalaterinventionusedtorecordthespeech.Therearestillsomelanguagesthatonlyhavethespokenform.Then,alargeramountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninThird,speechistheforminwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativeSaussure是如何区分语言langue和言语parole(ThedistinctionbetweenlangueandparolewasmadebythefamousSwisslinguistFerdinanddeSaussureearlythiscentury.LangueandparoleareFrenchwords.)Languereferstothe linguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollowwhileparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules.Langueis ;itisnotthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,butparoleisconcrete;itreferstothenaturallyoccurringlanguageevents.Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently;whileparolevariesfromto,andfromsituationtosituation.Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance(AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’sproposedthedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.)Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.Thisinternalizedsetofrulesenablesthelanguageusertoproduceandunderstandaninfiniylargenumberofsentencesandrecognizesentencesthatareungrticalandambiguous.AccordingtoChomsky,performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Althoughthespeaker’sknowledgeofhismothertongueisperfecthisperformancesmayhavemistakesbecauseofsocialandpsychologicalfactorssuchasstress,embarrassment,etc…Chomskybelievesthatwhatlinguistsshouldstudyisthecompetence,whichissystematic,nottheperformance,whichistoohaphazard(偶然的).HowisSaussure’sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilarChomsky’sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance?Andwhatistheirdifference?BothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweenlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.Theirpurposeistosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.TheydifferinthatSaussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions,andChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.Whatcharacteristicsoflanguagedoyouthinkshouldbeincludedinagood,comprehensivedefinitionoflanguage?LanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumanFirstofall,languageisasystem,i.e.elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.Second,languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitrefersto.Third,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforallTheterm“human”ismeanttospecifythatlanguageishuman-WhatfeaturesofhumanlanguagehavebeenspecifiedbyCharlesHocketttoshowthatitisessentiallydifferentfromanyanimalcommunicationsystem?人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？arecapableof)Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Althoughlanguageisarbitrarybynature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary.Non-arbitrarywordsmakeuponlyasmallpercentageofthetotalnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofinthemessagestheyareabletosend）Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossiblethecon¬structionandinterpretationofaninfiniylargenumberofsentences,includingthosetheyhaveneversaidorheardDuality（二重性）:（答案：afeaturetotallylackinginanyanimalcommunication）Itmeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsatthelowerlevelandtheotherofmeaningsatthehigherlevel.Atthelowerorthebasiclevel,thereisthestructureofindividualandmeaninglesssounds,whichcanbegroupedintomeaningfulunitsatthehigherlevel.Thisdualityofstructureordou¬blearticulationoflanguageenablesitsuserstotalkaboutanythingwithintheirremovedfromtheimmediatesituation）Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orfar-awayces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Culturaltransmission（文化传递性）：（答案：detailsofhumanlanguagesystemaretaughtandlearnedwhileanimalsarebornwiththecapacitytosendoutcertainsignalsasameansoflimitedcommunication）Whilewearebornwiththeabilitytoacquirelanguage,thedetailsofanylanguagearenotgeneticallytransmitted,butinsteadhavetobetaughtandDoyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinnature,itisnotentirelyarbitrary,becausetherearealimitednumberofwordswhoseconnectionsbetweenformsandmeaningscanbelogicallyexinedtoacertainextent,forexample,theonomatopoeia,wordswhicharecoinedonthebasisofimitationofsoundsbysoundssuchasbang,crash,etc..Takecompoundsforanotherexample.Thetwoelements“photo”and“copy”in“photocopy”arenon-motivated,butthecompoundisnotarbitrary.Chapter2:Definethe1).phonetics:Phoneticsisdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage;itisconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’s2).auditoryphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsfromthehearer’spointofview.Itstudieshowthesoundsareperceivedbythehearer.3).acousticphonetics:Itstudiesthespeechsoundsbylookingatthesoundwaves.Itstudiesthephysicalmeansbywhichspeechsoundsaretransmittedthroughtheairfromonetoanother.4).internationalphoneticalphabet[IPA]:Itisastandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscription.5).Broadtranscription:thetranscriptionwithletter-symbolsonly,i.e.oneletter-symbolforonesound.Thisisthetranscriptionnormallyusedindictionariesandteachingtextbooks.6).Narrowtranscription:isthetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacritics.Thisisthetranscriptionusedbythephoneticiansintheirstudyofspeechsounds.7).diacritics:isasetofsymbolswhichcanbeaddedtotheletter-symbolstomakefinerdistinctionsthanthelettersalonemakepossible.8).Voiceless（清音）whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.calledvoicedsounds.10).Vowel:thesoundsinproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.11).Consonants:thesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalled12).phonology:Phonologystudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguage;itaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguistic13).phone:Phonescanbesimplydefinedasthespeechsoundsweusewhenspeakingalanguage.Aphoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.Itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.14).phoneme:acollectionof phoneticfeatures,itisabasicunitinphonology.Itisrepresentedorrealizedasacertainphonebyacertainphoneticcontext.

15).allophone:Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesofthatphoneme.Forexample[l]and[l]16).phonemiccontrast:Phonemiccontrastreferstotherelationbetweentwophonemes.Iftwophonemescanoccurinthesameenvironmentanddistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.17).Complementarydistribution:referstotherelationbetweentwosimilarphoneswhichareallophonesofthesamephoneme,andtheyoccurindifferentenvironments.18)minimalpair:Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample:binandpin.19).suprasegmentalfeatures:thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,toneandintonation.20).tone:Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Pitchvariationcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.Themeaning-distinctivefunctionofthetoneisespeciallyimportantintonelanguages,forexample,in.21).intonation:Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Forexample,Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation:thefallingtone,therisingtone,thefall-risetoneandtherise-falltone.Whatarethetwomajormediaofcommunication?Ofthetwo,whichoneisprimaryandwhy?语言交际的两大媒介是什么？哪一个是基本的交际Speechandwritingarethemajormediaofcommunication.Speechisconsideredprimaryoverwriting.Thereasonsare:speechispriortowritinginlanguageevolution,speechysagreaterroleindailycommunications,andspeechisthewayinwhichpeopleacquiretheirnativelanguage.Whatarethethreebranchesofphonetics?Howdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsounds?学的？(可参照一下课文原话，可能更容易理解)Articulatoryphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditoryphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,andreachesimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalAcousticphoneticsstudiesthephysicalpropertiesofthespeechsounds,thewaysoundstravelfromthespeakertothehearer;itdealswiththesoundwavesthroughtheuseofsuchmachinesasaspectrograph（声谱仪）.Wherearethearticulatoryapparatusofhumanbeingcontained?Pharyngeal,oralandnasalWhatisvoicingandhowisitcaused?什么叫浊音化？它是如何形成Voicingistheresultofthevibrationofthevocalcords.Whenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibration,thesoundsproducedinsuchawayarevoiceless.Whenvocalcordsareheldtogethertautlysothattheairstreamvibratesthem,thesoundsproducedinthiswayarevoiced.Whatisthefunctionofnasal?HowdoesitperformthisThefunctionofnasalistonasalizethesoundsthatareproduced.ItdoesthisbyclosingtheairpassageconnectingtheoralandnasalcavitiessothattheairstreamcanonlygothroughthenasalDescribethevariouspartsintheoral whichareinvolvedintheproductionofspeechsounds?Thevariouspatsofthetongue:thetip,thefront,theblade,andtheback;theuvula;thesoftpalate;thehardpalate;theteethridge(alveolar);theupperandlowerteeth;thelips.Howbroadtranscriptionandnarrowtranscriptiondiffer?宽式标音和严Thebroadtranscriptionisthetranscriptionofsoundsbyusingonelettertorepresentonesound.Thenarrowtranscriptionisthetranscriptionwithdiacritics（变音符号）toshowdetailedarticulatoryfeaturesofsounds.Inbroadtranscription,thesymbol[l]inusedforthesound[l]inwordslikeleaf[lif],feel[fi:l],build[bild],andhealth[helθ].Thesound[l]inallthesewordsisdifferslightlyThe[l]in[lif],occurringbeforeavowel,iscalledaclear[l],andnodiacriticisneededtoindicateit;the[l]in[fi:l]and[bild],occurringbeforeanotherconsonant,iscalleddark[l],indicatedinnarrowtranscriptionas[l].Thenin[helθ],thesound[l]isfollowedbythedentalsound[θ],itisthuscalledadental[landtranscribedas[helθ]（注：l下有一个向下的框，无法打印）innarrowtranscription.HowaretheEnglishconsonantsclassified?英语的辅音是如何分类bymannerofa.stops（plosive音）:bfricatives（磨擦音）[f],[v],[s],[z],[θ],[ð],[ʒ],[h]c.affricates（破擦音）:[t∫],[dʒ]d.liquids（lal边音，流音）:[l],[r]enasals（鼻音）:[m],[n],[ f.glides（semivowels半元音）[w],2)byceofarticulationa.bilabial（双唇音）[p],[b],[m],[w]b.labiodental（唇齿音）:[f],[v]c.dental（舌齿音）: d.alveolar（齿龈音）e.palatal（腭音）[ʒt∫[dʒ],[j]f.velar（软腭音）:[k],[g],[ŋ]g.glottal（喉音，声门单）:[h]WhatcriteriaareusedtoclassifytheEnglishvowels?英语的元音是如Accordingtothepositionofthetongue,vowelsmaybedistinguishedasfrontvowelssuchas[i:][i][e][æ][a],centralvowelssuchas[ɜ:][ə][ʌ],andbackvowelssuchas[u:][ʊ][ɔ:][ɔ][ɑ:]Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,weclassifythevowelsintofourgroups:closevowelssuchas[i:][i][u:][ʊ],semi-closevowelssuchas[e][ɜ:],semi-openvowelssuchas[ə][ɔ:],andopenvowelssuchas[æ][a][ʌ][ɔ]and[ɑ:].Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelsaredividedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.InEnglishallthefrontandcentralvowelsareunroundedvowels,allthebackvowels,withexceptionof[ɑ:],areAccordingtothelengthofthevowels,theEnglishvowelscanalsobeclassifiedintolongvowelsandshortvowels.Thelongvowelsinclude[i:][ɜ:][ɔ:][u:][ɑ:]，whiletherestareshortvowels.WhatisthedifferencebetweenamonophthongandaAmonophthongisoneforwhichtheorgansofspeechremaininagivenpositionforaperiodoftime.Adiphthongisavowelsoundconsistingofadeliberateglide.Theorgansofspeechstartinginthepositionofonevowelandimmediaymovinginthedirectionofanothervowel,forexample:[i]aremonophthongs,and[aɪ],[eɪ]areHowdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofstudy?Whodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferencebetween[l]and[l],[p]and[ph],aphoneticianoraphonologist?Why?Phonetics:descriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinedifferences.Itnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning.Phonology:descriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.Itisrealizedascertainphoneanditdistinguishmeaning.Aphoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencesbecausesuchdifferenceswillnotcausedifferencesinmeaning,butcanmakefinerdistinctionsofthesounds.Whatisaphone?Howisitdifferentfromaphoneme?Howareallophonesrelatedtoaphoneme?Phone:aspeechsound,aphoneticunit.（ItnotnecessarilydistinguishPhoneme:acollectionof soundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.(realizedascertainphone,distinguishmeaning)Allophones:actualrealizationofaphonemeindifferentphoneticWhatisaminimalpairandwhatisaminimalset?Whyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage?Minimalpair:twosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.Minimalset:agroupofsoundcombinationswiththeaboveByidentifyingtheminimalpairsortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphonologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.Whatarephonemiccontrast,complementarydistribution,andminimalpair?什么叫音位对立？什么叫互补分布？什么是最小对立对？(p34)Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyareinphonemiccontrast.[p],[b]Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsaretwoallophonesofthesamephonemeandtheyoccurindifferentenvironments,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.[p],[ph].Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.Forexample,killandbill.Exinwithexamplesthesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.(每条规则记一个例子)Sequentialrule:ruleerningthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularAssimilationrule:ruleassimilatingonesoundsimilartothefollowingonebycopyingoneofitsphoneticfeatures.Deletionrule:ruleerningthedeletionofasoundinacertainphoneticcontextalthoughitisrepresentedinspelling.Whataresupresegmentalfeatures?HowdothemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesofEnglishfunctioninconveyingmeaning?什么是超音位特征？它是如何影响语义的？(p40)SuprasegmentalfeaturesarephonologicalfeaturesabovethesoundsegmentThemajorsuprasegmentalfeaturesinEnglisharewordstress,sentencestressandintonation.

ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,suchas`importandim`port.Thesimilaralternationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements.AphonologicalfeatureoftheEnglishcompoundsisthatthestressofthewordalwaysfallsonthefirstelementandthesecondelementreceivessecondarystress,forexample:`blackbirdisaparticularkindofbird,whichisnotnecessarilyblack,butablack`birdisabirdthatisblack.Sentencestressreferstotherelativewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Themoreimportantwordssuchasnouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,arepronouncedwithgreaterandmademoreprominent.Andtheothercategoriesofwords(articles, pronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions)areusuallynotstressed.Buttogivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinsentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressedtoachievedifferenteffect.Takethesentence“Heisdrivingmycar.”Forexample,toemphasizethefactthatthecarheisdrivingisnothis,oryours,butmine,thespeakercanstressthepossessivepronounmy,whichundernormalcircumstancesisnotstressed.Englishhasfourbasictypesofintonation,knownasthefourtones:Whenspokenindifferenttones,thesamesequenceofwordsmayhavedifferentmeanings.Generallyspeaking,thefallingtoneindicatesthatwhatissaidisastraight-forward,matter-of-factstatement,therisingtoneoftenmakesaquestionofwhatissaid,andthefall-risetoneoftenindicatesthatthereisanimpliedmessageinwhatissaid.WhatdoessentencestressSentencestressreferstotherelativewhichisgiventothewordsinasentence.Somewordsaremoreimportantthanothers,andthemoreimportantwordsarepronouncedwithgreaterandmademoreprominent.ThemoreimportantwordsinEnglisharenouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,anddemonstrativepronouns,andtheothercategoriesofwords(articles,alpronouns,auxiliaryverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions)areusuallynotstressed.Togivespecialemphasistoacertainnotion,awordinasentencethatisusuallyunstressedcanbestressed.Forexample:Heisdrivingmycar.Mymaybestressedtoemphasizethefactthatthecarismine.1morphemes:Theyaretheindependentunitsofmeaningandcanbe lyallbythemselves,forexample,“book-”intheword“bookish”.Boundmorphemes:Theyarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherorbound,toformawordsuchas“-ish”in“bookish”.Boundmorphemescanbesubdividedintorootsandaffixes.Arootisseenaspartofaword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughithasaclearanddefinitemeaning,suchas“gene-”intheword“generate”.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalandderivational.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrticalrelationsorgrticalcategoriessuchas“-s”intheword“books”toindicatepluralityofnouns.Derivationalaffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreateawordsuchas“mis-”intheword“misinform”.Derivationalaffixescanalsobedividedintoprefixesandsuffixes.Prefixesoccuratthebeginningofawordsuchas“dis-”intheword“dislike”,whilesuffixesoccurattheendofawordsuchas“-less”intheword“friendless”.2、Morphology[词态学]:studytheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Ithastwosub-branches:Inflectionalmorphology[曲折词态学]：studytheLexical[词汇orderivational[派生morphologystudyofword-formationMorpheme:thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageRoots:isseenaspartofword;itcanneverstandbyitselfalthoughitbearsclear,definitemeaning;itmustbecombinewithanotherrootoranaffixtoformaword.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectional[曲折词缀]andderivational[派生词].Inflectionalaffixesorinflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrticalrelationsorgrticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.Derivationalaffixes:areaddedtoanexistingformtocreataword.suchawayofword-formationiscalledderivation[派生法]andthenewwordformdbyderivationiscalledaderivative[派生词].Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem[词干].Affixesarediviedintotwokinds:prefixes前缀]andsuffixes[后缀Prefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,excepttheprefixes"be-",and"en-".Suffixesmodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.3FeaturesofOrthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasonewordwithorwithoutahypheninbetween,orastwoseparatewords.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofthecompoundisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechofthesecondelement.Semantically,themeaningofacompoundisoftenidiomatic,notbeingthesumtotalofthemeaningofitsphonetically,thestessofacompoundalwa