思维和语言教学课件

Myers’PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter10ThinkingandLanguage

ThinkingCognitionmentalactivitiesassociatedwiththinking,knowing,remembering,andcommunicatingCognitivePsychologistsstudythesementalactivitiesconceptformationproblemsolvingdecisionmakingjudgmentformationThinkingConcept

mentalgroupingofsimilarobjects,events,ideas,orpeoplePrototypementalimageorbestexampleofacategorymatchingnewitemstotheprototypeprovidesaquickandeasymethodforincludingitemsinacategory(aswhencomparingfeatheredcreaturestoaprototypicalbird,suchasarobin)ThinkingAlgorithmmethodical,logicalruleorprocedurethatguaranteessolvingaparticularproblemcontrastswiththeusuallyspeedier–butalsomoreerror-prone--useofheuristicsThinkingHeuristicsimplethinkingstrategythatoftenallowsustomakejudgmentsandsolveproblemsefficientlyusuallyspeedierthanalgorithms

moreerror-pronethanalgorithmsThinkingUnscrambleSPLOYOCHYGAlgorithmall907,208combinationsHeuristicthrowoutallYYcombinationsotherheuristics?ThinkingInsightsuddenandoftennovelrealizationofthesolutiontoaproblemcontrastswithstrategy-basedsolutionsConfirmationBiastendencytosearchforinformationthatconfirmsone’spreconceptionsFixationinabilitytoseeaproblemfromanewperspectiveimpedimenttoproblemsolvingTheMatchstickProblemHowwouldyouarrangesixmatchestoformfourequilateraltriangles?TheThree-JugsProblem

UsingjugsA,B,andC,withthecapacitiesshown,howwouldyoumeasureoutthevolumesindicated?TheCandle-MountingProblemUsingthesematerials,howwouldyoumountthecandleonabulletinboard?ThinkingMentalSettendencytoapproachaprobleminaparticularwayespeciallyawaythathasbeensuccessfulinthepastbutmayormaynotbehelpfulinsolvinganewproblemThinkingFunctionalFixednesstendencytothinkofthingsonlyintermsoftheirusualfunctionsimpedimenttoproblemsolvingTheMatchstickProblemSolutiontothematchstickproblemTheThree-JugsProblem

Solution: a)Allsevenproblemscanbesolvedbytheequationshownin(a):B-A-2C=desiredvolume.b)Butsimplersolutionsexistforproblems6and7,suchasA-Cforproblem6.TheCandle-MountingProblemSolvingthisproblemrequiresrecognizingthataboxneednotalwaysserveasacontainerHeuristicsRepresentativenessHeuristicjudgingthelikelihoodofthingsintermsofhowwelltheyseemtorepresent,ormatch,particularprototypesmayleadonetoignoreotherrelevantinformationHeuristicsAvailabilityHeuristicestimatingthelikelihoodofeventsbasedontheiravailabilityinmemoryifinstancescomereadilytomind(perhapsbecauseoftheirvividness),wepresumesucheventsarecommonExample:airplanecrashThinkingOverconfidencetendencytobemoreconfidentthancorrecttendencytooverestimatetheaccuracyofone’sbeliefsandjudgmentsThinkingFramingthewayanissueisposedhowanissueisframedcansignificantlyaffectdecisionsandjudgmentsExample:Whatisthebestwaytomarketgroundbeef--as25%fator75%lean?ThinkingBeliefBiasthetendencyforone’spreexistingbeliefstodistortlogicalreasoningsometimesbymakinginvalidconclusionsseemvalidorvalidconclusionsseeminvalidBeliefPerseveranceclingingtoone’sinitialconceptionsafterthebasisonwhichtheywereformedhasbeendiscreditedArtificialIntelligenceArtificialIntelligencedesigningandprogrammingcomputersystemstodointelligentthingstosimulatehumanthoughtprocesses

intuitivereasoninglearningunderstandinglanguageArtificialIntelligenceComputerNeuralNetworkscomputercircuitsthatmimicthebrain’sinterconnectedneuralcellsperformingtaskslearningtorecognizevisualpatternslearningtorecognizesmellsLanguageLanguageourspoken,written,orgesturedworksandthewaywecombinethemtocommunicatemeaningPhonemeinaspokenlanguage,thesmallestdistinctivesoundunitLanguageMorphemeinalanguage,thesmallestunitthatcarriesmeaningmaybeawordorapartofaword(suchasaprefix)GrammarasystemofrulesinalanguagethatenablesustocommunicatewithandunderstandothersLanguageSemanticsthesetofrulesbywhichwederivemeaningfrommorphemes,words,andsentencesinagivenlanguagealso,thestudyofmeaningSyntaxtherulesforcombiningwordsintogrammaticallysensiblesentencesinagivenlanguageLanguageWeareallborntorecognizespeechsoundsfromalltheworld’slanguages1009080706050403020100PercentageabletodiscriminateHindit’sHindi-speakingadults6-8months8-10months10-12monthsEnglish-speakingadultsInfantsfromEnglish-speakinghomesLanguageBabblingStagebeginningat3to4monthsthestageofspeechdevelopmentinwhichtheinfantspontaneouslyuttersvarioussoundsatfirstunrelatedtothehouseholdlanguageOne-WordStagefromaboutage1to2thestageinspeechdevelopmentduringwhichachildspeaksmostlyinsinglewordsLanguageTwo-WordStagebeginningaboutage2thestageinspeechdevelopmentduringwhichachildspeaksinmostlytwo-wordstatementsTelegraphicSpeechearlyspeechstageinwhichthechildspeakslikeatelegram-–“gocar”--usingmostlynounsandverbsandomitting“auxiliary”wordsLanguageSummaryofLanguageDevelopmentMonth(approximate)Stage410122424+Babblesmanyspeechsounds.Babblingrevealshouseholdslanguage.One-wordstage.Two-world,telegraphicspeech.Languagedevelopsrapidlyintocompletesentences.LanguageGenesdesignthemechanismsf