语言学第四章chapter4课件

Chapter4Syntax

精选pptoutline4.1Introduction4.2WordClasses

4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

4.4.1Structuralanalysis

4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar

4.6TransformationalGrammar

4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar

精选ppt4.1Introduction

Syntax:studyoftheinternalstructuresofsentenceandtherulesforthecombinationofwords.DifferencebetweenmorphologyandsyntaxMorphology:theinternalstructureofwords

Syntax:thecombinationofwords

精选pptSyntacticrules(1)a.Thehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirds.b.Theblackbirdsfearthecriesofthehunter.(2)a.Jacklookeduptheword.b.Jacklookedthewordup.(3)*Criesfearthetheofhunterblackbirdsthe.Conclusion:Thestructureofsentencesuchaswordordercanchangethemeaning.Everysentenceisasequenceofwordsbutnoteverysequenceofwordsisasentence.Sentenceformationhasrules,sothatwehavewell/illformedor(un)grammaticalsentences.精选ppt4.2WordClasses

Nounsarewordsusedtorefertopeople,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomenaandabstractideasasiftheywereallthings.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectivesarewordsthatdescribethething,quality,stateoractionwhichanounrefersto.beautiful,redVerbsarewordsusedtorefertovariousactionsandstatesinvolvingthe“things”inevents.run,walk,seem精选pptAdverbsarewordsthatdescribeoraddtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,anotheradverb,orasentence,andwhichanswersthequestionsintroducedbyhow,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositionsarewordsusedwithnounsinphrasesprovidinginformationabouttime,placeandotherconnectionsinvolvingactionsandthings.精选pptPronounsarewordswhichmayreplacenounsornounphrases.Conjunctionsarewordsusedtoconnectandindicaterelationshipsbetweeneventsandthings.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals精选pptThedefinitionsaboveareusefulforidentifyingmostforms,buttheyarenevercompletelyaccurate.Adifferentapproachmightfocusonsomeotherpropertiesofthewordclasses.Forexample,anouncanbedefinedasaformthatcomesafteranarticle(a,anandthe)andcantakeinflectionsforpossessive(-’s)andplural(-s).Ofcourse,notallnouns(eg.informationandmud)haveallthesecharacteristics.

精选pptPhrasestructurerulesRepresentation(通过词性表征句法):ThehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirdsArt+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NTheruleswhichgovernthestructureofphrasesareknownasphrasestructurerulesorrewriterules.Suchrulesallowforthegenerationofgrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.精选ppt4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

Definition:Anapproachtakenbysomegrammarians,mainlyineighteenth-centuryEngland,wholaydownrulesforthecorrector“proper”useofEnglishbyfollowingLatin.精选ppt(a)Youmustnotsplitinfinitives.(b)Youmustnotendasentencewithapreposition.Toboldlygo.→Togoboldly.Prepositionisnotawordyoucanendasentencewith.(funny)精选ppt4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

Definition:Anapproachtakenthroughoutthe20thcenturywhichattemptstodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageasitisusedbycollectingsamples.Varioustechniquesmaybeemployed.精选ppt4.4.1Structuralanalysis

Adescriptiveapproachstudyingthedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagebymeansoftestframes,whichcanbesentenceswithemptyslotsinthem.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）(4)The_____makesalotofnoise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)Ihearda_____yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)精选ppt(6)_____makesalotofnoise.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)(7)Ihear_____yesterday.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)精选ppt4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis

(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法)

Languageislinearandhierarchical.Wecananalyzelanguagefromitslargestleveltothesmallestlevel,thatisfromitsconstructiontoitsconstituentsbymeansofsubstitutabilityandexpansion.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.精选pptThefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituentsiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis(IC).精选pptImmediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)

hastwowaysofrepresentation:Treediagrambrackets精选pptTreediagram

(8)Themanboughtacar.

精选pptBracketsBracketscanalsobeusedbutarearguablylesseasytoread.(9)a.[themanboughtacar]b.[[theman][boughtacar]]c.[[[the][man]][[bought][acar]]]d.[[[the][man]][[bought][[a][car]]]]精选pptMerit:SolvingDisambiguityoldmenandwomen

精选ppt4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar

(成分结构语法)Agrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.Themainprincipleislabelingandbracketingbasedontheideathatlinguisticunitscanbepartsoflargerconstructionsorcanthemselvesbemadeupofsmallerparts.(binaryandverb-centered)精选ppt

Treediagram

BinaryVerb-centered精选pptGenerativeRules(早期转换语法的概念—短语结构语法)

Thesyntaxofalanguageisthenseenasasetofruleswhichgeneratesentencesinthatlanguage.S→NP＋VPVP→Vtr.＋NPNP→Art＋NVtr.→buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.N→man,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Art→a,an,the

精选ppt(12)a.Themanboughtacar.b.Themansoldacar.c.Thewomanrepairedthebicycle.Sentencesgenerated：精选pptMorecomplexrulesThereisalargenumberofsentencesinEnglishthatsuchrulescannotproduce.Thissetofruleshasverylimitedgenerativepower.Theaboverulesonlydealwithsimplenounphrasesandtransitiveverbs.Theydonotallowustodealwithanypartoftheverbstructuresuchastense,modalsoraspect.精选ppt精选pptSentencesgenerated：(13)a.Themansellsthecarinthegarage.b.Thewomanwashesthebicycleinthestreet.c.Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.精选pptMerit:SolvingDisambiguity(14)Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.

inthehousearoundthecorner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性)MaryhelpedGeorge.CathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.JohnsaidCathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.精选pptAchildren’srhyme:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthewomanthatmarriedthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.精选pptSomeproblemsofCSG:A.LexicalselectionrestrictionWithsimpleconstituentstructurerules,anynouncanbeintroducedinacombinationwithanyverb.Thisdoesnothappeninnaturallanguage.Wecannotsay:(15)*Thebeliefwashedanapple.精选pptB.Discontinuousness(16)Theboycleanedtheroomup.(17)Thestudentlookedthewordupinthedictionary.C.Relationbetweensentencesthatseemtobecloselyrelatedstructurallyandsemantically(18)a.BrianhitGeorge→b.GeorgewashitbyBrian.

精选ppt

NoamChomsky,(1928--)，founderofTransformationalGrammar4.6TransformationalGrammar精选pptGrammar:thereinTransformationalGrammar,

isinthebroadestway,atheoryofgrammarincludingphonologyandsemantics.AlinguistictheoryWeshallonlyfocusonthesyntacticaspectoftransformationalgrammar.精选pptI.Classicaltheory

Threeparts:phrasestructurerulestransformationalrules,morphophonemicrules.S→NP+VP;simpleactivedeclarativekernelsentences

(短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。)精选pptAtransformationruleisasequenceofsymbolswhichcouldberewrittenconventionallyasdifferentsequence.

passivetransformationNP1＋Aux＋V＋NP2→NP2＋Aux＋be＋en＋V＋by＋NP1(19)a.Theboyhasrepairedthebicycle.b.Thebicyclehasbeenrepairedbytheboy.精选pptThemorphophonemicruleswouldapplytotheoutputofthetransformationalrules.Theirfunctionistoprovidethecorrectmorphologicalshapetothevariouspartsofthestructureandfinallytogivetheappropriatephonologicaldescription.

(公式----言语表达)精选ppt

Treediagram

精选pptII.Standardtheorycompetenceandperformance(Chapter1)deepstructureandsurfacestructureThedeepstructureofasentenceisitsmostbasicstructurebothsemanticallyandsyntactically.Thesurfacestructureistheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Itisfairlyarbitrary.Twosuperficiallysimilarstructuresmayconveyasubstantiallydifferentmessage.精选pptdeepstructureandsurfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:(20)a.Johniseasytoplease.b.Johniseagertoplease.InthefirstsentenceJohnisdoingthepleasing,andinthelatterheisonthereceivingend.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.

精选pptStandardtheory精选pptDifferentstagesofgenerativegrammarIII.ExtendedStandardTheoryIV.RevisedExtendedStandardTheoryV.GovernmentandBindingTheory(GB)[PrinciplesandParametersApproach(P&P)]VI.MinimalistProgram(MP)精选pptOtherbranchesofGG:Throughoutthedevelopmentoftransformationalgrammar,Chomskyhasmaintainedthecentralityofsyntax.Thesyntacticcomponentoftransformationalgrammaristhegenerativecore.Othercomponentsareinterpretiveanddependentonthebasicanddeepsyntacticstructure.Noteveryoneagreedwithhimonthispoint.Generativesemantics:givesemanticsthecentralgenerativerole.Casegrammar:seesyntaxascentralbutprefertoworkwith“case”structuresanddependencyrelations.精选ppt4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar(SFG)

Linguistswhoadoptthisviewareinterestedinrelatingthevariouskindsofstructuresandpatternsthatlanguageshowstothefunctionsthatlanguagefulfillsandtothesocialsettingsinwhichitisused.DifferencefromTG:functionandcontextual,purposefulHalliday’sthreemeta-functions:ideational,interpersonal,textualM.A.KHalliday精选pptIdeational

概念功能Ideational:thefunctioninwhichweconceptualizetheworldasarepresentationofexperience.（及物性（动词）、语态、）(19)Theboykickedthepost.(Thepostwaskickedbytheboy)(20)Themanlikedthenewhouse.(21)Thechildishomeless.(22)Thegirllaughed.(23)Thevisitorsaid“hello”.(24)Thereisagirloverthere.精选pptTransitivityProcessSubcategoryNuclearparticipantsExampleMaterial物质过程Event(i.e.happening)Action(i.e.doing)Actor(动作者),过程(Process),Goal(目标),(beneficiary/recipient,range/circumstance)Shebuiltthehouse(forthekids)Sheclimbed(themountain)Mental心理过程PerceptionCognitionAffectionSenser(感知者),过程(Process),Phenomenon(现象)ShesawthecarSheforgothisnameShelikedhismusicRelational关系过程Attributive(归属)Identifying(识别)Carrier(载体),Attribute(属性);Token(标记),Value(价值)MaggiewasourleaderMaggiewasstrongBehavioural行为过程Behaver(行为者)ShelaughedVerbal言语Sayer(讲话者)SherepliedExistential存在过程Existent(存在物)Therewasabeautifulprincess精选ppt精选pptInterpersonal

人际功能Interpersonal:setupandmaintainsocialandpersonalrelations,includingcommunicationrolessuchasquestionerandrespondent,andexpressthelanguageuser’sownattitudesandcommentsonthecontentofanutterance.（语气（句型）、情态、语调）Traditionallydeclarative,interrogativeandimperative精选pptDeclarative:giveinformationandperformthefunctionofstatementInterrogative:requestsomethingandperformthefunctionofquestion

Imperative:giveinstructionsandperformthefunctionofcommandsHowever,exactcorrelationbetweenformandfunctiononlyoccursinidealizedsentences.Wecanusedeclarativetoaskquestions,andtoissueinstructions.精选pptMood（语气）Demandfor,andofferof,goodsorservicesDemandfor,andofferof,linguisticinformation(27)a.Passthesalt.b.Pleasepassthesalt.c.Canyoupassthesalt?d.Couldyoupossiblypassthesalt?e.Youcouldn’tpossiblypassthesalt,couldyou?Politenessincreases：Themoreindirectthedemand,themorepoliteitisfelttobe.精选pptTextual

语篇功能Textual:enablethespeakerorwritertoconstructatext,andthelistenerorreadertodistinguishatextfromarandomsetofsentences.（主位关系、信息结构（标记理论）、衔接）Wehavetodecidehowtoorderthepartsofthemessagesoas(a)tomakeitcleartoouraudience,and(b)toemphasize,ormakeprominent,theessentialelementsofit.精选pptInformationstructure信息结构

given(old,known)+new(unknown)markedvsunmarked(28)a.Thereisabirdonthetree.(unmarked)b.Abirdisonthetree.(marked)(29)a.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohn.(lesscumbersome)b.JamesenjoystennismorethanJohnenjoystennis.精选pptthematicrelation

主位关系Theme主位:thefirstconstituent,thestartingpointoftheclause----whatitisgoingtobeabout.Rheme述位:therestoftheclause(30)a.Gasexplosionkilledthousands.b.Thousandswerekilledbygasexplosion.(31)a.Theraincamedown.(unmarked)b.Downcametherain.(marked)精选pptThebookisonatableThematicthemerhemeInformationoldnewFunctionalapproachesconcentratingontextualaspectsfeaturequitehighlyindiscourseanalysisandwewillbereturningtotheminChapter7.精选pptSummary4.1Definition4.2WordClasses(ten:5+5)

4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach

4.4TheDescriptiveApproach

4.4.1StructuralAnalysis(withslots)

4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(tree)4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar(tree,rules,merits,features,problems)

4.6TransformationalGrammar(grammar,classic,standard,stages,otherbranches)

4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar

(ideational,interpersonal,textual)精选pptExercise1.Definethefollowingterms.syntax,wordclass,prescriptiveapproach,descriptiveapproach,ICanalysis,ultimateconstituent,transformationalgrammar,ideationalfunction,interpersonalfunction,textualfunction2.Drawtwotreediagramsforthefollowingsentencetoshowthedifferentrelationshipofinthecar.Thedogbitthemaninthecar.精选pptQuestionsforchapterthree

andchapterfour1.HowmanytypesofmorphemesarethereintheEnglishlanguage?Statewhattheyareandillustratehowtheywork.2.Giveexamplestotellthedifferencebetweenderivationandcompounding.3.Giveexamplestoillustratethedistinctionbetweendeepstructureandsurfacestructure.精选pptQuestionsforchapterthree

andchapterfour1.Howmanytypesofmor