医学院校硕士研究生英语读与写8

医学院校硕士研究生英语

读与写EnglishforMasterStudentsinMedicalUniversitiesUnitSevenTextAEthicalIssuesintheUseofAnimalsinBiomedicalResearchOutlineBackgroundinformationGlobalanalysisofthetextDetailedstudyofthetextTextstructureanalysisReferenceanswerstotheexercises5BackgroundinformationIntroductiontotheauthorRichardR.Sharp

DirectorofBioethicsResearchatClevelandClinic,Dr.SharpreceivedhistraininginphilosophyandmedicalethicsatMichiganStateUniversity.BackgroundinformationIntroductiontothetopicAnimalexperimentsarewidelyusedtodevelopnewmedicinesandtotestthesafetyofotherconsumerproducts.Manyoftheseexperimentscausepaintotheanimalsinvolvedandreducetheirqualityoflifeinsignificantways.Ifitismorallywrongtocauseanimalstosufferthenexperimentingonanimalsproducesseriousmoralproblems.Animalexperimentersareveryawareofthisethicalproblemandacknowledgethatexperimentsshouldbeashumaneaspossible.Theyalsoagreethatitiswrongtouseanimalsifalternativetestingmethodswouldproduceequallyvalidresults.BackgroundinformationTwopositionsonanimalexperimentsInfavorofanimalexperiments:Experimentingonanimalsisacceptableif(andonlyif):1)sufferingisminimizedinallexperiments2)humanbenefitsaregainedwhichcouldnotbeobtainedbyusingothermethodsAgainstanimalexperiments:Experimentingonanimalsisalwaysunacceptablebecause:1)itcausessufferingtoanimals2)thebenefitstohumanbeingsarenotalwaysvalid3)anybenefitstohumanbeingsthatanimaltestingprovidescouldbeconductedinotherwaysBackgroundinformationHarmversusbenefitThecaseforanimalexperimentsisthattheywillproducegreatbenefitsforhumanity,andthatitismorallyacceptabletoharmafewanimals.Thecaseagainstanimaltestingisthatboththelevelofsufferingandthenumberofanimalsinvolvedaresohighthatthebenefitstohumanitydoesnotprovidemoraljustification.BackgroundinformationThethreeR’sThethreeR’sareasetofprinciplesthatscientistsareencouragedtofollowinordertoreducetheimpactofresearchonanimals.ThethreeR’sare:Reduction,Refinement,andReplacement.Backgroundinformation1)Reduction:Reducingthenumberofanimalsusedinexperimentsby:I.ImprovingexperimentaltechniquesII.ImprovingtechniquesofdataanalysisIII.SharinginformationwithotherresearchersBackgroundinformation2)Refinement:Refiningtheexperimentorthewaytheanimalsarecaredforsoastoreducetheirsufferingby:I.UsinglessinvasivetechniquesII.ProvidingbettermedicalcareIII.ProvidingbetterlivingconditionsBackgroundinformation3)Replacement:Replacingexperimentsonanimalswithalternativetechniquessuchas:I.ExperimentingoncellculturesinsteadofwholeanimalsII.UsingcomputermodelingIII.StudyinghumanvolunteersIV.UsingepidemiologicalstudiesBackgroundinformationCrueltytoAnimalsActof1876:TheCrueltytoAnimalsActof1876wasanactpassedbytheParliamentoftheUnitedKingdomwhichsetlimitsonthepracticeof,andinstitutedalicensingsystemforanimalexperimentation,amendingtheCrueltyto

AnimalsAct1849.ItslongtitlewasAnActtoAmendtheLawrelatingtoCrueltytoAnimals(15August1876).TheActwasreplaced110yearslaterbytheAnimals(ScientificProcedures)Act1986.TheActstipulatedthatresearcherswouldbeprosecutedforcruelty,unlesstheyconformedtoitsprovisions,whichrequiredthatanexperimentinvolvingtheinflictionofpainuponanimalstoonlybeconductedwhen"theproposedexperimentsareabsolutelynecessaryforthedueinstructionofthepersons

[sotheymaygoontousetheinstruction]tosaveorprolonghumanlife.“FurthermoretheActstatedthatshouldtheexperimentoccur,theanimalmustbeanaesthetised,usedonlyonce(thoughseveralproceduresregardedaspartofthesameexperimentwerepermitted),andkilledassoonasthestudywasover.ProsecutionsundertheActcouldbemadeonlywiththeapprovaloftheSecretaryofState.TheActwasapplicabletovertebrate

animalsonly.14BackgroundinformationAnimalLiberationFront:TheAnimalLiberationFront(ALF)isaninternational,

underground,leaderlessresistancethatengagesinillegaldirectactioninpursuitofanimalliberation.Activistsseethemselvesasamodern-dayUndergroundRailroad,removinganimalsfromlaboratoriesandfarms,destroyingfacilities,arrangingsafehousesandveterinarycare,andoperatingsanctuarieswheretheanimalsliveouttherestoftheirlives.Criticshavecomparedthemtoterrorists.15

GlobalanalysisofthetextTheauthorpresentsmajorviewpointsduringthehistoryontheuseofanimalsinbiomedicalresearchandheliststhemintimeorder:ancienttime,recentpast,nowadays,andfuture.Theauthorshowshisownpositionexplicitly.

TextstructureanalysisThetextcanbedividedintofourmajorparts:PartI(Paragraphs1-3)Thispartfocusesontheopinionsintheancientpast.PartII(Paragraphs4-7)Thispartismainlyaboutthechangingopinionsbetweentheearly/mid19thcenturytotheendofthatcentury.TextstructureanalysisPartIII(Paragraphs8-12)Thispartpresentsperspectivesfromthemid/late20thcenturytothepresent.PartIV(Paragraphs13-15)Thispartdealswiththethreemainalternatives,whichbecomemoreprominentandmaybethetendencyofthefuture.…wasmorallyjustifiableinlightofthepotentialhealthbenefitsassociatedwiththoseexperiments.(Para.1)DetailedstudyofthetextMeaning:…was

acceptablewithrespecttomoralprinciples,ifthefactisconsideredthatthoseanimalexperimentscouldhelpsolvealotofhealthproblemsinhumanbeings.justifiable:acceptableorcorrectbecausethereisagoodreasonExample:If

a

goal

is

worthy,

then

any

means

takentoattain

itis

justifiable.…wasmorallyjustifiableinlightofthepotentialhealthbenefitsassociatedwiththoseexperiments.(Para.1)Detailedstudyofthetextinlightof:considering;accordingtoExample:I'msurethatyoucansellmorethisyearinlightofthegoodmarketconditions.…werevoicedregardingtheuseofanimalsinbiomedicalstudies.(Para.3)DetailedstudyofthetextMeaning:…wereexpressedasfortheuseofanimalsinbiomedicalresearch.voice(vt.):expressExample:Hewaschosentovoicetheirgrievance.…therewasclearmoralconsensusthatthepracticeofanimalvivisectionwasnotunethical.(Para.3)Detailedstudyofthetextconsensus:agreementinthejudgmentoropinionreachedbyagroupasawholeExample:Theconsensusamongtheworld'sscientistsisthattheworldislikelytowarmupoverthenextfewdecades.…therewasclearmoralconsensus

thatthepracticeofanimalvivisectionwasnotunethical.(Para.3)Detailedstudyofthetextunethical:notadheringtoethicalormoralprinciplesExample:It'ssimplyunethicaltopromoteandadvertisesuchadangerousproduct.…,fueledanti-vivisectionsentiments.(Para.4)DetailedstudyofthetextMeaning:…helpedtoencouragepeopletoexpresstheiropinionsagainstoperatingonlivinganimals.fuel(vt.):stimulate;helporencouragetoform

Example:Highersalarieshelpedtofuelinflation.

Onlyhumanbeingswereendowedwithspecialcapacities,…(Para.5)Detailedstudyofthetextbeendowedwith/endowsb.withsth.:give;conferupon,bestowExample:Heisendowedwithagreatmusicaltalent.…,whichtheypossessedinvirtueofthefactthattheyhadsouls.(Para.5)Detailedstudyofthetextinvirtueof:becauseof,dependingon,accordingtoExample:Ieatlotsoforangesinvirtueofthemanyvitaminstherein.However,…calledthisperspectiveintoquestion.(Para.5)Detailedstudyofthetextcall…intoquestion:raisedoubt;bringintoquestionExample:Hishonestywascalledintoquestion.…,thentheactionwassubjecttomoraldisapproval.(Para.5)Detailedstudyofthetextbesubjectto/besubjectedtobesubjectto中subject为形容词，常常用于指“易受……影响的；易患……的”

besubjectedto中subject为动词，多用于指“屈从于……的支配；遭

受……（不幸等）”两者虽然有些微区别，但意思总体上还是比较接

近的，大多情况下可以互换。

Examples:Ourpricesaresubjecttochangefromdaytoday.Thisareaissubjecttodroughtbecauseitdoesn'trainhereoften.Hewassubjectedtoseverecriticism.Thesebreakthroughaccomplishmentsdemonstratedinamannerthathadnotbeenpossiblebeforethattime,…(Para.7)Detailedstudyofthetextinamanner:inaway;inasenseExample:Heblamedmeand,inamanner,hewasright.Thesebreakthroughaccomplishmentsdemonstratedinamannerthathadnotbeenpossiblebeforethattime,thattheuseofanimalsinmodern…(Para.7)DetailedstudyofthetextTherearetwo“that”inthissentence:thefirstintroducesarelativeclausemodifying“manner”toshowwhatkindof“manner”itis;whilethesecondintroducesasubordinateclausefunctioningastheobjectof“demonstrated”.…thatmightbefallresearchersinvolvedinperformingsuchstudies.(Para.8)Detailedstudyofthetextbefall:happentoExample:Statistically,

Katrina

was

oneof

theworst

disasters

to

befall

the

UnitedStates.

…,amountstoaformof“speciesism”.(Para.10)Detailedstudyofthetextamountto:toadduptoExample:Hisinvestmentsamounttofivemilliondollars.

Thebankshavewhatamountstoamonopoly.这些银行几乎接近于垄断。…andthatanimalpainandsufferingshouldbefactoredintoourmoralassessments,…(Para.12)Detailedstudyofthetextbefactoredinto:tobeconsidered,takenintoaccountExample:Disabledpeople’shumanrightsmustbefactoredintohousingbenefitswhentherelevantpolicyisbeingmade.…onbalance,thepotentialbenefitsoftheresearchinquestionoutweighthepotentialharmstoanimalssubjects.(Para.12)Detailedstudyofthetextonbalance:ingeneralExample:IthinkonbalanceIpreferthefirstversionofthenovel.inquestion:underconsideration;underargumentExample:Theladyinquestionisnotintheofficerightnow.Othersquestionwhetherresearcherspayenoughattentiontothejustificationofthe…(Para.14)Detailedstudyofthetextjustification:something(suchasafactorcircumstance)thatshowsanactiontobereasonableornecessaryExample:Thecourtsaidthattherewasno

justification

forthepaperpublishingthestory.Othersquestionwhetherresearcherspayenoughattentiontothejustificationofthe…(Para.14)Detailedstudyofthetextjustify:toprovesomethingtobereasonableorcorrectExample:Somewillseethisasanattemptto

justify

orexcusecommentsthataresimplyinexcusable.justified:consideredtobereasonableandacceptableExample:TheObamaAdministrationarguesthatsuchfederalcoercionis

justified

bytheCommerceClause.Researcherswhofailtocomplywiththoseregulationsshouldexpecttobejudged…(Para.15)Detailedstudyofthetextcomplywith:toabideby,observe,obeyExample:Ifyou

donot

comply

with

these

rules,thetransaction

strategy

will

not

work.

ClassroomActivityPleaseworktogethertofindoutwhatthepicturetellsusandhowthehumanbeingwillreactwhenheawakes.ReferenceanswerstotheexercisesTextA3.1)landscape2)envisioned3)thereafter4)fraternity5)amountedto6)ambiguous7)salient8)befall9)breakthrough10)besubjecttoReferenceanswerstotheexercisesTextA4.WritingexerciseA.TranslationfromChinesetoEnglish

Therearetwoformsofcriticismoftheconceptofanimalwelfare,comingfromdramaticallyoppositepositions.Oneview,datingbackcenturies,assertsthatanimalsarenotconsciouslyawareandhenceareunabletoexperienceanywelfare.Theotherviewisbasedontheanimalrightspositionthatanimalsshouldnotberegardedasproperty,andanyabuseofanimalsbyhumansisunacceptable.Someauthoritiesthustreatanimalwelfareandanimalrightsastwoopposingpositions.Accordingly,someanimalrightproponentsarguethatbetteranimalwelfarefacilitatescontinuedandincreasedexploitationofanimals.Othersseetheincreasingconcernforanimalwelfareasafurthersteptowardsanimalrights.立场选择型作文这类作文的框架相对固定，三段可以分别这样展开：第一段：引言句开头，引出要评论的事物，说明在这一

事物上的不同看法，引出自己的观点。第二段：段首句承上启下，指出原因和理由，分别进行

详细论述。第三段：总结出自己的观点。立场选择型作文模板

Whenaskedabout(_____),somepeopleholdtheideathat(___).Asfarastheyareconcerned,(____).当问及…时，一些人持有这样的观点…;在他们看来，…

ButIcouldnotagreewiththeminseveralpoints.Inmyopinion,(_____).然而，我却不赞同他们的看法。在我看来，…

Thereasonsformychoicearelistedasfollows.我之所以做出这样选择，原因如下：

Firstofall,(______).Whatismore,(______).Lastbutnottheleast,(______).首先，…;其次，…;最后，…

Forthereasonsmentionedabove,Ifirmlybelievethat(______).基于以上原因，我坚持认为，…ReferenceanswerstotheexercisesTextA4.WritingexerciseB.