联合国环境署-塑料污染对弱势群体造成“环境不公”（英文）-2021.5-64正式版

NEGLECTED:

EnvironmentalJustice

ImpactsofMarine

LitterandPlastic

Pollution

1

NEGLECTED:

EnvironmentalJusticeImpactsofMarineLitterandPlasticPollution

PublishedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)April2021

“Neglected–EnvironmentalJusticeImpactsofMarineLitterandPlasticPollution”–English

ISBNNo:978-92-807-3852-0

JobNo:DEL/2350/NA

Authors

JulianoCalil(Ph.D.),SeniorFellowattheCenterfortheBlueEconomy,AdjunctFacultyatthe

MiddleburyInstituteofInternationalStudiesatMonterey,VirtualPlanetTechnologies,LLC

MarceGutiérrez-Graudiņš,ExecutiveDirector,Azul

SteffanieMunguía,FloridaInternationalUniversity

ChristopherChin,ExecutiveDirector,TheCenterforOceanicAwareness,Research,andEducation(COARE)

Acknowledgments

WearegratefultoEllaMcDougallforhercontributionstothetextofthisreport,toAndreaLeón-GrossmannofAzulforherworkondevelopinggraphicstovisualizetheseissues,andtoKarlaGaribayGarciaforherprojectmanagement.WethankSirineRachedofGAIAforherinsightoncon-nectingplasticstotheSustainableDevelopmentGoals,andYvetteArrellanoandtheteamatTexasEnvironmentalJusticeAdvocacyServices(TE-JAS)fortheirinputonenvironmentalinjusticesintheplasticsproductionprocess.WearealsogratefultoJanePatton,DavidAzoulay,andAndrésDelCastillowiththeCenterforInternationalEnvironmentalLaw(CIEL),andAlejandraParrawiththeReddeAcciónporlosderechosAmbientales(RADA)fortheirguidanceandhelpwiththeframingofthisreport.ThisreporthasbenefitedfromadditionalreviewbyMalikaAmélieTaoufiq-Cailli-au,LegalOfficerintheSecretariatoftheBasel,Rotterdam,andStockholmConventionsandElisaMorgera,UniversityofStrathclyde.WealsothankSirineandJanefortheirproofreadingsupport,aswellasTrisiaFarrellyforherimmensehelpandguidancewithoursourcingofmaterials.Thisreporthasbeenenrichedsignificantlybyalloftheircontributions.

ThispublicationwasdevelopedbytheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),throughthegenerousfundingoftheNorwegianAgencyforDevelopmentCooperation,incollaborationwithAzulinCalifornia,UnitedStatesofAmerica.ThefinalcriticalreviewandconsolidationofthedraftwasundertakenandoverseenbyAndrewRaine,SeniorProgrammeManagementOfficer,HeidiSavelli-Soderberg,ProgrammeManagementOfficer,EcosystemsDivision,StephanievanderPoel,AssociateExpert,EcosystemsDivision,AngelaKariuki,ProgrammeManagementOfficer,andDariaVasilevskaia,LegalInternwiththeLawDivisionofUNEP.

Citation

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(2021).Neglected:EnvironmentalJusticeImpactsofMarineLitterandPlasticPollution.Nairobi.

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Disclaimer

ThecontentsandviewsexpressedinthispublicationdonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsorpoliciesoftheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgrammeoritsMemberStates.ThedesignationsemployedandthepresentationofmaterialonanymapscontainedinthispublicationdonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheSecretariatoftheUnitedNationsconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,territory,cityorareaorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthedelimitationofitsfrontiersorboundaries.ThereferencesandsourcematerialsreflectthestateofknowledgeasofNovember2020.

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Producedby

LawDivision,

UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme

P.O.BOX30552,Nairobi,KenyaTel:+254207623365

Email:unep-law-director@

Coverphoto:JudgeFlorentinoFloro

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TableofContents

COVID-19ANDPLASTIC

6

PlasticDemandandWasteIncreaseDuringthePandemic

6

OilPricesatHistoricalLows

7

WastePickers

8

Conclusion

8

INTRODUCTIONANDOBJECTIVES

9

EnvironmentalJusticeandVulnerablePopulations

12

Howdidwegethere?

14

Whatareplastics?

14

ScaleoftheProblem

14

PlasticWasteandtheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)

16

ImpactsofPlasticProduction

23

PlasticsandGHGEmissions

23

EnvironmentalImpactsofOilExtractionandOilRefineries

23

ImpactsonIndigenousPeoples

24

ImpactsonWomen

24

ImpactsofFracking

25

FencelineCommunities

26

TypesofPlasticsandPlasticProducts

27

TransportationandExportofPlasticProducts

28

ImpactsofSingle-UsePlastics

29

HealthImpactsofPlasticUsage

30

ImpactsofPlasticWaste

31

Recycling/Wishcycling

31

Incineration

33

Landfill,Dumped,andLitteredintheEnvironment

33

ImpactsofMarinePlasticPollution

37

SourcesandQuantity

37

ImpactsonTourism

38

ImpactsonFishingIndustry

39

Microplastics

39

MicroplasticsintheFoodChain

41

ImpactsonAgriculture

41

ConnectiontoVulnerablePopulations

42

5

LEGALANDPOLICYREVIEW

42

InternationalAgreementsRelatedtoWasteDisposalandControlofHazardousWaste

43

InternationalAgreementsRelatedtotheTransportationofHazardousChemicalsandWaste

44

Non-bindingInternationalEfforts

45

GlobalImpactsofthe2018ChinaBanonPlasticWasteImports

46

RECOMMENDATIONS–WHEREDOWEGOFROMHERE?

48

BusinessandIndustry

49

Countries

50

Non-GovernmentalActors

51

Consumers

52

LIMITATIONSANDRECOMMENDATIONSFORFUTURESTUDIES

54

Bibliography

55

6

COVID-19ANDPLASTIC

ThisreportwascompletedafewmonthsbeforetheonsetoftheCOVID-19pandemicthatbroughtmassiveeconomicdisruptionsaroundtheglobewithsharpdeclinesinGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)andglobaltrade.1ThissectionofthereportisnotintendedtobeacomprehensiveoverviewoftherelationshipbetweenCOVID-19andplastic.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)andtheauthorsofthisreportacknowledgethatmorerecentliteraturehassincebeenreleased.TheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)andtheauthorsofthisreportstandinsolidaritywithmillionsofhealthcareprofessionalskeepingussafe,andpartnersbothwithinandoutsidetheUNsystemthatareworkingaroundtheclocktotackletheglobalpandemic.AstheUnitedNationsSecretary-Generalhasnoted,COVID-19ismorethanahealthcrisis.Itisahumancrisisthatisattackingsocietiesattheircore.ThepoorandmarginalizedareamongthoseworstimpactedbybothCOVID-19andenvironmentalharms,suchasmarinelitterandplasticpollution,thatdirectlyandindirectlythreatenthefullandeffectiveenjoymentofallhumanrightsincludingtherightstolife,waterandsanitation,food,health,housing,culture,anddevelopment.Environmentalharmsdisproportionatelyimpactpersons,groupsandpeoplesalreadylivinginvulnerablesituations–includingwomen,children,thepoor,migrantsandinternallydisplacedpeople,indigenouspeoples,andpersonswithdisabilities.Inaddition,environmentalharmsimpactenvironmentalhumanrightsdefenders-“individualsandgroupswho,intheirpersonalorprofessionalcapacityandinapeacefulmanner,strivetoprotectandpromotehumanrightsrelatingtotheenvironment,includingwater,air,land,floraandfauna.”2CrisessuchasCOVID-19addanotherlayerofrisk,throughimpactsonaccesstofoodandland,waterandsanitation,livelihoodsandtherighttodecentwork,healthcare,andotherbasicnecessities.

RecentpublicationsrelatedtoCOVID-19includetheBasel,Rotterdam,andStockholmConventions’

guidancedocumentonEnvironmentallySoundManagementofMedicalWaste,andtheUNSpecialRapporteur’sreport“ontheimplicationsforhumanrightsoftheenvironmentallysoundmanagementanddisposalofhazardoussubstancesandwastes,”presentedtotheHumanRightsCouncil.3,4ThissectionofthereportwascompletedinOctober2020when,atthetime,notmanypeer-reviewedstudieshadbeenpublishedontheimpactsofthepandemiconplasticsconsumption,butthelimitedresearchconductedpointstoanincreaseinconsumptionanddisposalofplasticandmedicalmaterials,andseveredisruptionsofalreadyfaultyrecyclingprocesses.Theseissueshavebeenfurtheraccentuatedbyhistoricallylowoilpricesthatmadevirginresinscheaperthanrecycledones.5

PlasticDemandandWasteIncreaseDuringthePandemic

Thereisgreatconcernthatthepandemicmayreverseanyprogressonreducingconsumptionofsingle-useplastic.Thepandemicresultedinastaggeringincreaseintheuseofdisposableplasticproductssuchasmasksandfaceshields,gloves,handsanitizerbottles,protectivemedicalsuits,testkits,foodtakeoutcontainers,deliverypackaging,andmanyotherproductsthathavebecomecommonplace.6OnestudyestimatedthatiftheglobalpopulationweretousethesamenumberofmasksandglovesusedinItalyinthespringof2020,129billionfacemasksand65billiongloveswouldbeconsumedmonthlyworldwide.7

Moreover,thepandemichasbeenviewedasanopportunitytodriveconsumptionofsingle-useplastics.Forinstance,duringtheearlyweeksofthepandemicinMarch2020,theU.S.DepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesreceivedaletterfromthePlasticsIndustryAssociationrequestingapublicannouncementfromtheDepartmentpraisingpromotingthehealthandsafetybenefitsofsingle-useplasticsandspeakingoutagainstbans

UNCTAD,‘Post-COVID-19:InvestmentPromotionAgenciesandthe‘NewNormal’’(2020),

/system/files/official-document/diaepcbinf2020d5_en.pdf

,accessed18November2020.

UNHumanRightsCouncil,‘ReportoftheSpecialRapporteuronthesituationofhumanrightsdefenders’(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly2016)

BRSConventions,‘COVID-19FactsheetonEnvironmentallySoundManagementofMedicalWaste’(2020).

HumanRightsCouncil,‘DutytopreventexposuretotheCOVID-19virus’(UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly2020)

DunnK,‘“BlackApril:”IEAWarnsof“Staggering”DemandDropinGlobalOilMarkets’(Fortune,15April2020)

/2020/04/15/black-april-oil-production-iea/

,accessed18November2020.

BengaliS,‘TheCOVID-19PandemicIsUnleashingaTidalWaveofPlasticWaste’(LosAngelesTimes,13June2020)

/

world-nation/story/2020-06-13/coronavirus-pandemic-plastic-waste-recycling

,accessed18November2020.

PrataJCandothers,‘COVID-19PandemicRepercussionsontheUseandManagementofPlastics’(2020)54EnvironmentalScience&Technology7760

7

ofsingle-useplasticmaterials.8Theletterwassentaweekafterapeer-reviewedstudywaspublisheddemonstratingthatthenovelCOVID-19viruscouldsurviveonplasticsurfacesforupto72hours,comparedtoupto24hoursoncardboardsurfaces,9andinspiteofthefactthathealthexpertsstatedthatdisposableproductspresentsimilarCOVID-19-relatedhealthconcernsasreusableones.10

Anincreaseinplasticwaste,aswellasinmedicalwaste,isbeingobservedworldwide.11GlobalsalesofdisposablefacemasksmayreachanestimatedUS$166billionin2020,a200-foldincreasefrom

2019numbersofUS$800million.12InSingapore,duringaneight-weeklockdown,anadditional1,470tonsofplasticwastewasgeneratedfromtakeoutpackagingalone.13InWuhan,China,medicalwasteincreasedsix-foldto240tonsperdayduringthepandemic,overloadingthecity’sincinerationcapacityof49tonsperday.14AsinglehospitalinJordanproducedtentimesmoremedicalwasteperday,withonly95COVID-19patients,thanitnormallyproduces.15InTehran,Iran,medicalwastefromhospitalsincreasedbetween17.6%and61.9%duringtheearlymonthsofthepandemic(from52-74tonsperdayto80-110tonsperday).16Suchincreasesofmedicalwasteareresultinginacollapseofwastemanagementchainsglobally.AsofApril2020,

46%ofrecyclingfacilitiesintheUKhadreducedorstoppedtheirrecyclingservices.17

Someanalystssuggestthatthereductioninuseofsomeplasticmaterialsmayoffsettheincreaseindisposableplasticproducts,18butthereisnotfindmuchpubliclyavailableevidencesupportingsuchsuggestions.Knock-oneffectsonhumanhealth,livelihood,andrights,whicharelikelytohitthosepoorestandmarginalizedwithoutaccesstowastemanagementorsanitationinfrastructure,mustbeavoided.Effectiveandinclusivewastemanagement,includingmedical,household,andotherhazardouswaste,iscriticaltominimizepossiblesecondaryimpactsonhealthandtheenvironmentcausedbytheCOVID-19response.

OilPricesatHistoricalLows

Thelockdownshavedrasticallyreduceddemandforoil,pushingitspricestohistoricallows.19Asaresult,thecosttoproducevirginplasticscanbelowerthanrecycledmaterials.20Thelowercostofvirginplasticshasadoublenegativeeffect,asitincreasesproductionofnewplasticmaterials,andcouldmakerecyclingfacilitiesnolongereconomicallyviable.21ArecyclingfacilityinPortugalhasseenrevenuesdropupto40%sincethepandemicbegan.Thefacilityproducesrecycledpolyethylene,whichisusedtomanufactureplasticbagsandbottles.22

ThesesameeffectsarealsofeltinCalifornia,U.S.InanefforttocontainthespreadofCOVID-19

SchlegelI,‘HowthePlasticIndustryIsExploitingAnxietyaboutCOVID-19’(GreenpeaceUSA,26March2020)

/usa/

how-the-plastic-industry-is-exploiting-anxiety-about-covid-19/

,accessed18November2020.

vanDoremalenNandothers,‘AerosolandSurfaceStabilityofSARS-CoV-2asComparedwithSARS-CoV-1’(2020)382NewEnglandJournalofMedicine1564.

‘HealthExpertStatementAddressingSafetyofReusablesandCOVID-19’(Greenpeace,22June2020)

/usa/wp-

content/uploads/2020/06/Health-Expert-Statement_Final.pdf

,ccessed18November2020.

‘GrowingPlasticPollutioninWakeofCOVID-19:HowTradePolicyCanHelp’(UNCTAD,27July2020)

/news/growing-plastic-

pollution-wake-covid-19-how-trade-policy-can-help

,accessed18November2020.

BengaliS,‘TheCOVID-19PandemicIsUnleashingaTidalWaveofPlasticWaste’(LosAngelesTimes,13June2020)

/

world-nation/story/2020-06-13/coronavirus-pandemic-plastic-waste-recycling

,accessed18November2020.

PatrícioSilvaALandothers,‘IncreasedPlasticPollutionDuetoCOVID-19Pandemic:ChallengesandRecommendations’(2021)405ChemicalEngineeringJournal126683

KlemešJJandothers,‘MinimisingthePresentandFuturePlasticWaste,EnergyandEnvironmentalFootprintsRelatedtoCOVID-19’(2020)127RenewableandSustain-ableEnergyReviews109883

Ibid.

ZandADandHeirAV,‘EmergingChallengesinUrbanWasteManagementinTehran,IranduringtheCOVID-19Pandemic’(2020)162Resources,ConservationandRecycling105051

EmintonS,‘CouncilWasteServices“Disrupted”,FindsSurvey’(,5April2020)

/news/latest-news/

council-waste-survey-coronavirus/

,accessed18November2020.

DunnK,‘Anothercasualtyofthepandemic:We’re‘drowning’insingle-useplasticsagain’(Fortune,17August2020)

/2020/08/17/single-use-plastics-coronavirus-climate-change-pollution-covid/

,accessed18November2020.

DunnK,‘“BlackApril:”IEAWarnsof“Staggering”DemandDropinGlobalOilMarkets’(Fortune,15April2020)

/2020/04/15/

black-april-oil-production-iea/

,accessed18November2020.

DunnK,‘Anothercasualtyofthepandemic:We’re‘drowning’insingle-useplasticsagain’(Fortune,17August2020)

/2020/08/17/single-use-plastics-coronavirus-climate-change-pollution-covid/

,accessed18November2020;DemonyC,

‘EconomicMeltdownThreatensEurope’sWaronPlastic’Reuters(7August2020)

/article/us-health-coronavirus-europe-

plastic-idUSKCN2531AO

,accessed18November2020.

Ibid.

DemonyC,‘EconomicMeltdownThreatensEurope’sWaronPlastic’Reuters(7August2020)

/article/us-health-

coronavirus-europe-plas-tic-idUSKCN2531AO

,accessed18November2020.

8

contamination,thestatesuspendeditsplasticbagbanforsixtydaysstartingApril22,2020.23Thegoalofthebanwastore-duce“theriskofCOVID-19exposureforworkersengagedinessentialactivities,suchasthosehandlingreusablegrocerybags

orrecyclablecontainers”.24Theimpactsofthetemporarysuspensionofthebagbanhadnegativeimpactsontheproductionandrecyclingofplasticbagsandfilmpackaging.SimilarlytowhathappenedinEurope,manufacturersintheU.S.quicklyrevertedtousing100%virginresinsastheycostlessthanrecycledresins.25InSoutheastAsia,recyclersreducedpricesbyanaverageof21%,duetothefallinvirginresinsprices.26

WastePickers

Theimpactsofthegloballockdownhavealsobeenseveretowastepickers.InManilainthePhilippines,wastepickersarenolongerabletosellrecyclablesasmostjunkyardsandotherbusinessesthatpurchasethemhavebeenclosedformonths.27Insomecases,wastepickersarereprimandedbypoliceiftheyleavetheirhomestocollectplasticproducts,forcingthemtoreverttoinsufficientgovernment

orsocialsupport,ifavailable,orborrowingmoneytosurvive.28InVietnamandThailand,twoofthefirstcountriestoendtheirlockdownmandates,thevolumesofrecycledmaterialswerestillsignificantlylowerthanthepre-pandemiclevels.29

Ifhistoricalnumbersaretoindicatethefuture,lessthan10%ofplasticsusedduringthepandemicwilleverberecycled,andmorethan70%willfinditswaytolandfillsortheenvironment.30AsCOVID-19cansurviveonplasticsurfacesforuptothreedays,thisposesadditionalconcernsforhumancontaminationfromplasticwaste.31

Conclusion

Thedisruptionbroughtuponbythe2020pandemicmayprovideopportunitiesforsignificantandlong-lastingchangestoeconomicstructuresandfacilitateamovetowardsacirculareconomywherewaste

ismanagedmuchmoresustainably.Thelessonslearnedfromthisfirsttrulyglobalpandemicwillprovideinvaluableinsightsforfutureimprovements,butthefutureofplasticsmaywellbedeterminedbythepaththatsocietytakesintheglobaleconomicrecoveryfromthepandemic.32

However,theseearlystudiesabouttheimpactsofCOVID-19onplasticwasteseemtoconfirmthemainfindingfromthisreportthatplasticpollutionand,includingmarinelitter,disproportionatelyimpactspersons,groups,andpeoplesinvulnerablesituationsandtheirbasicrights,health,andwell-being,andwillposesubstantialobstaclestothefulfilment

oftheSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Moreover,arights-basedapproach,includingsocialjusticeapproaches,totheCOVID-19recoveryandresponserequiresthatwebuildbackbetterandmoresustainably.EffectiveresponsestoCOVID-19andenvironmentalcrisesmustbeglobalresponsesgroundedinsolidarity,compassion,andrespectforhumandignity.TherequiredactionsmustbuildonobligationsofStatescountriesandotherduty-bearersininternationalenvironmentallawandhumanrightsinstrumentsaswellasregionaltreaties.

‘GovernorNewsomSignsExecutiveOrderonActionsinResponsetoCOVID-19’(CaliforniaGovernor,24April2020)

.

/2020/04/23/governor-newsom-signs-executive-order-on-actions-in-response-to-covid-19-2/

,accessed18November2020.

‘Announcement:ExecutiveOrderN-54-20SuspendsDeadlinesforFiling,Noticing,andPostingCEQADocumentswithCountyClerks’(27April2020)

/news/2020/04-27.html#:~:text=Pursuant%20to%20Executive%20Order%20N,been%20suspended%20for%2060%20days

.,accessed18November2020.

StaubC,‘PauseonBagLawIsaHittoSomeRecyclers’(PlasticsRecyclingUpdate,29April2020)

/

plastics/2020/04/29/pause-on-bag-law-is-a-hit-to-some-recyclers/

,accessed18November2020.

SuratmanN,‘SEAsia,IndiaPlasticRecyclingWeigheddownbyPandemic,LowOilPrices’(ICISExplore)(20August2020),

<

/explore/resources/news/2020/08/20/10543073/se-asia-india-plastic-recycling-weighed-down-by-pandemic-low-oil-

prices>news/2020/08/20/10543073/se-asia-india-plastic-recycling-weighed-down-by-pandemic-low-oil-prices

>,accessed18November2020.

PhilippineTrashTrawlersStrugglewithVirus-LedPlasticSurge’(AlJazeera,10August2020)

/economy/2020/8/10/

philippine-trash-trawlers-struggle-with-virus-led-plastic-surge

,accessed18November2020.

Ibid.

SuratmanN,‘SEAsia,IndiaPlasticRecyclingWeigheddownbyPandemic,LowOilPrices’(ICISExplore)

/explore/resources/

news/2020/08/20/10543073/se-asia-india-plastic-recycling-weighed-down-by-pandemic-low-oil-prices

,accessed18November2020.

GeyerR,JambeckJRandLawKL,‘Production,Use,andFateofAllPlasticsEverMade’(2017)3ScienceAdvancese1700782

PrataJCandothers,‘COVID-19PandemicRepercussionsontheUseandManagementofPlastics’(2020)54EnvironmentalScience&Technology7760

KahlertSandBeningCR,‘PlasticsRecyclingaftertheGlobalPandemic:ResurgenceorRegression?’(2020)160Resources,ConservationandRecycling104948

9

PhotobyOpérationMerPropretakenonJuly9,2020(CreativeCommons).

INTRODUCTIONANDOBJECTIVES

Publicunderstandingofmarinelitterandplasticpollutionhasrisenconsiderablyinthelastcoupleofyears.Peopleunderstandtheissuesbroughtonbyusingunnecessaryplastics–namely,thepollutionofourwaterwaysandoceans.Farlessunderstoodisthebroadercontextinwhichthispollutionexists,andofthefullextentofitsimpacts.

Plastics,describedasagroupofsyntheticmaterialsusedina“hugeandgrowingrangeofapplications”33havebeenincorporatedintoourlivesatatrulyastonishingspeed.Convenience,hygiene,andsafetyareoftenmentionedasthemainbenefits

ofthesematerials,whichistrueifthecontextconsideredisnarrowlydefinedasthespecificuseintended,ratherthanthewholelifecycleofthesematerials.Unfortunately,plasticproductsdonotexistinavoid,butrather,aspartofaglobalchainofcommercethatimpactshumans,aswellasthenaturalresourcesandecosystemstheydependon

forsurvival.34Therefore,itisessentialtounderstandthedisproportionateimpactsonpersons,groups,andpeoplesinvulnerablesituationsatallstagesofaplasticproduct’scycle.

Ninety-ninepercentofplasticsareproducedfrompetrochemicals,whicharesourcedfromfossilfuels.35Giventhevolatilityofsomeoftherawmaterials,theprocessestosourcethesestocksarehighlydependentoncomplexlogistics,andthus,plasticsarefrequentlyproducedingeographicproximitytofossilfuelrefineryfacilities.Thisverticalintegrationbenefitsindustry,butitcomesattheexpenseofcommunitiesandpeoplelocatedinthevicinityoflarge-scaleindustrialcomplexes.36

Oncetheseplasticmaterialsareinuse,thereareotherimpactstoconsider.Forinstance,theuseofplasticbottlesaspackagingfordrinkingwa